Conjugation Definition of Conjugation by Oxford ...
Conjugation Definition of Conjugation by Oxford ...
16.1: Conjugation - Chemistry LibreTexts
Definition of hyperconjugation - Chemistry Dictionary
Illustrated Glossary of Organic Chemistry - Conjugation
Conjugation - an overview ScienceDirect Topics
Conjugate Definition in Chemistry - ThoughtCo
Difference Between Conjugation and Hyperconjugation ...
Ch 10: Conjugation - Home Chemistry Faculty of Science
Bacterial Conjugation- Definition, Principle, Process ...
Conjugate Acid Definition in Chemistry - ThoughtCo
conjugation definition in chemistry
conjugation definition in chemistry - win
Ions, acids, compounds
[https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/periodic-table/png/Periodic_Table_of_Elements_w_Chemical_Group_Block_PubChem.png ] As before, while the behavior of all molecules is rooted in the orbital structure and electron dynamics, it is convenient to define broad categories of molecules that behave in similar ways. In the past and in the absence of any way to determine precise structures, molecular behavior was essentially all that previous chemists had to work with. Despite the psychological weight of all the work that has been performed making categorizations and trying to fit all known compounds into a few well-defined categories, the reality of chemistry is and always has been messy. With that in mind, let’s talk about ions, acids, and compounds. First up, I should spell out the difference between an element, a molecule, a compound, a substance, a chemical, and however else you want to refer to things. An atom of an element has a distinct atomic number, a distinct number of protons, and in the neutral and ground state (uncharged and in the lowest possible energy electron configuration) has a distinct orbital and electronic structure. It is of course possible to have many atoms of the same element as well as different numbers of neutrons in/isotopes of the same element, but (ie) a boron atom is going to have fundamentally different bonding properties than a carbon atom or any other atom. Once you start bonding atoms together, you end up with molecules that have distinct structures, molecular orbitals, and chemical behaviors. There will of course be similarities between similar molecules, but a molecule of methane (CH4) is different than one of ethane (C2H6 or H3C-CH3) or one of propane (C3H8 or H3C-CH2-CH3). Continuing with the hydrocarbons, once you get to four carbons (C4H10) and above it is possible to have multiple configurations of the main carbon chain, so technically you would need to distinguish between butane (historically unbranched/normal/n-butane) and 2-methylpropane (historically isobutane/i-butane). However, we are now getting into the different isomers (butane, 2-methylpropane) of the same chemical formula (C4H10) instead of sticking with the idea of compounds. So, I would define a compound as a unique three dimensional arrangement of atoms, but trying to describe a three-dimensional and possibly quite complicated shape in words concisely gets difficult extremely quickly. As with atoms, you can have very many identical molecules in the same place, although in practice mixtures of similar molecules are more common unless extensive purification work has been conducted. By the time we are talking about a substance, we have progressed from a 3D picture of one unique molecule to whatever you are physically dealing with. This could be a mixture of different compounds, different compounds with trace contaminants, one compound with trace contaminants, any of the above with more than trace contaminants, etc. In practice, figuring out what is actually in the test tube/beakeflask/reaction glassware is quite difficult, and you may notice that we are at the practical level after having started in theory. Generally speaking, I would suggest starting with IUPAC naming conventions, which are intended to include as much structural information in the name as possible, as seen with the butane and 2-methylpropane names in the preceding paragraph. In practice, nearly every specialization will have their own naming schemes that they will defend to the point of exhaustion regardless of whether or not retaining a separate naming scheme that people then have to learn makes sense. My position is that the benefits of a naming scheme that can be applied as universally as possible and be comprehended by as many people as possible is going to outweigh the inconvenience of the extra characters in 2-methylpropane versus “i-butane”. Speaking of unique naming schemes, I had to attempt to memorize several during the course of my undergraduate instruction, including dihydrogen monoxide (H2O)/carbon dioxide (CO2), the difference between nitrate and nitrite (one is NO3^-, the other is NO2^-), sodium chloride (NaCl)/disodium carbonate (Na2CO3), and a bunch of other stuff that I clearly have not retained very well. When dealing with covalently bonded compounds like water or carbon dioxide, the main way to figure out whether you have a valid structure or a false memory is to keep track of/draw out the valence electrons of each atom and make sure that they all “own” the correct number of valence electrons and are participating in an appropriate number of bonds. In charged molecules/ionic compounds/salts, there is the additional complexity of making sure that the charges end up on the correct counterions. As an example, sodium (Na) can either have a charge of 0 (neutral) or a charge of +1, while a chlorine atom (Cl) has a charge of 0 and the chloride ion (Cl-) has a charge of -1. If your structure requires chlorine to have a positive charge, you have almost certainly made a mistake. Also, the net charge on any molecule defaults to 0, so adding up all of the charges on all of the ions is another useful check. In practice, only a few ions that will be commonly encountered, and searching either the structure or the name quickly brings you to the missing information. Unless you’re in an exam, of course. For our purposes, that is a sufficient introduction to the rules of relatively simple and mostly inorganic compounds and their naming. I have left plenty of information out, but the best way to actually learn about this is to encounter the concepts and naming schemes during the course of your normal work or exploration and doing enough internet searching to fill in most of the gaps in your knowledge rather than trying to memorize enough information to immediately identify every compound in the entire universe. We also need to get into acid-base chemistry, which suffers from a surplus of definitions. The most familiar definition is the Brønsted-Lowry definition of an acid as a proton (H+) donor, and a base a proton acceptor. In this definition, an acid’s ability to donate H+ depends on how closely the proton is bonded to the atom it detaches from, leading to a spectrum of strong and weak acids and their conjugate bases. It is important to note that all of this is taking place in water, with the protons actually being donated to water molecules to form hydronium/H3O+, which is then complexed to and stabilized by the negative (non-hydrogen) ends of adjacent water molecules. The positive charge on the hydronium complex is countered by the negative charge on the former acid that is caused by the departure of a proton without its electron. Or, an acid (HA) donates a proton to water to form hydronium (H3O+) and the deprotonated conjugate base (A-) of the acid. The net charge is still zero, the number of electrons remains the same, etc. The same thing can happen when a base (B or B-) accepts a proton from hydronium (H3O+) to form the conjugate acid of the base (HB+ or HB), although the existence of B- in solution will depend on the presence of a positively charged counterion. Complicating matters further, water will always contain some hydronium (H3O+) and some hydroxide (OH-) due to spontaneous disocciation even before any Brønsted-Lowry acids or bases are added. It logically follows that hydronium (H3O+) is the strongest acid that can exist in water and hydroxide (OH-) is the strongest base that can exist in water. The degree of acidity or basicity that can be ascribed to a substance added to water is due to the degree of dissociation – strong acids or bases will almost completely dissociate, very weak acids or bases will hardly dissociate, and everything in between. So and in summary, Brønsted-Lowry acids or bases can only donate or receive protons in water or another suitable medium. If we instead use the Lewis definition of acids as accepting electron pairs and bases as donating electron pairs, we are well situated to get into the organic chemistry reactions. It must be said that most people will not have much contact with situations in which the concept of Lewis acids and bases adds anything to the Brønsted-Lowry definition. At the same time, if we view the protons detached from Brønsted-Lowry acids as the actually acidic component (because this is the case) and the HA “acid” as a delivery medium for the proton, we find that the Lewis definition squares perfectly well with the idea of H+ accepting an electron pair and being “donated” to another molecule, with the other molecule donating an electron pair and “accepting” the hydrogen. The Lewis definition is both more broadly applicable and focuses on the electrons as the most important part of any chemical interaction, which makes sense because chemistry is the movement or presence of electrons more than anything else. The general chemistry professor who was responsible for teaching me about acid-base chemistry was an inorganic specialist, dismissed the Lewis definition as being unimportant, and caused me several years of confusion and anxiety as a direct result.
[https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/periodic-table/png/Periodic_Table_of_Elements_w_Chemical_Group_Block_PubChem.png ] or [https://ptable.com/#Properties ] If we are going off the Lewis definition of acids as electron pair acceptors and bases as electron pair donors, the problems of ion solubility (mostly H+ and OH- ions) can be appropriately distanced from the actual behavior of hydronium (H3O+) or hydroxide (OH-) complexes in water. In other words, we first ask what species exist in what concentrations in the solution of interest, then what will happen between the different species. However, we cannot completely separate the Brønsted-Lowry and Lewis definitions due to Le Chatelier’s principle, which would state that the presence of the products of dissociation tend to prevent additional dissociation events. However, if product ions start being consumed in other reactions, the effective result is to shift the equilibrium back towards the starting materials, and additional dissociation events will then become energetically favorable. The result of this is that the behavior of chemical reactions is best contemplated holistically and with a full set of executive functionality instead of being taught as a series of disconnected fragments that imply the existence of a much higher level of precision than is actually ever possible and must be stitched together by students working without the benefit of fully developed brains. As I go through the process of writing out this series of posts, I am getting the definite impression that the progress that has been made in our understanding of atoms and orbitals has mostly obsoleted the way that general chemistry is currently taught, and that the current state of teaching is centered around exams to the detriment of the students. My general chemistry education also had far too much emphasis on the Brønsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases instead of treating these as equilibrium problems. So and before we go any farther, let’s get pH out of the way. A lowercase “p” denotes the mathematical operation of taking the negative log of a quantity for some reason, so pH is actually the negative (base 10) log of H where H is the ionic activity of “H+” in the solution of interest. As it turns out, this is actually the activity of hydronium complexes instead of lone protons, but unless you are trying to visualize what is actually happening in the solution the two can be treated as equivalent. Of course, if you’ve gotten so obsessed with applying equations to chemical processes that you are willing to ignore the three-dimensional picture, you’re probably also not doing anything of value, but anyway. In most cases, pH can be calculated with the concentration of hydronium in moles per liter instead of a more rigorous activity measurement, so in other words pH is mostly equal to -log([H3O+]). [I should also note that the difference between the concentration of hydronium and the concentration of protons is not particularly significant in acid-base problems because the protons in water will either react with other species or form hydronium. If you are calculating the concentration of protons in water at any given time, you are also calculating the concentration of hydronium.] If you’re willing to get pedantic there is a nearly infinite amount of additional complexity that can be brought in here, but I’m not emotionally invested in this and see no reason to care. Proceeding with pH=-([H3O+]), you may notice that we are only calculating the acidity of our solution and not the basicity. However, due to the spontaneous dissociation/autoionization of water, acidity and basicity are closely related to each other. In a volume of water, the multiplication product of the concentrations in moles per liter of hydronium/H3O+ and hydroxide/OH- is a constant. At 25 degrees Celsius, this constant (Kw) is equal to 1.0x10^-14, and Kw=[H3O+]*[OH-]. In this notation scheme, the square brackets denote concentration in moles per liter, and square brackets are usually but not always moles per liter. In any case, the reason to care is that the assumptions here mostly hold true once we start adding additional chemical species to the volume of water we started with. As the number of ions in solution increase, other issues start to arise, but mostly what you need to remember is that this is a simplified model and not an absolute definition of what is happening on the molecular level. Where this model is valuable is in relating the concentration of hydronium to the concentration of hydroxide (both in moles per liter) in a mostly reliable manner, which means that if we know a value for one at a given time we can calculate the value of the other one. So, if you have a concentration of hydroxide and you want to know the pH, you can use Kw to calculate the concentration of hydronium, then take the negative base 10 log of the result to get to pH. The addition of the logarithm allows the comparison of numbers with vastly different orders of magnitude but also brings quite a bit of confusion. In any case, using these assumptions we can define interrelated pH and pOH scales to measure acidity and basicity as the density of hydronium and hydroxide in solution. You may notice that this aligns well with the Lewis definitions, although we are not considering any other possible Lewis acids or bases. Once you get into organic chemistry and start trying to do reactions, having a trace amount of ions in your reaction mixture doesn’t get you anywhere, and all of the assumptions as previously defined get thrown out of the window. At high concentrations of ions/high ionic activities (which are mostly equivalent concepts), we get back to the idiosyncratic and non-intuitive behavior that we expect to see in chemistry. These conditions also favor the Lewis definitions, and if it seems like I am being a bit heavy-handed in mentioning the advantages of teaching the Lewis definitions to students as early as possible you would be quite correct. Fully embracing the Lewis definitions will require the more neurotic or tradition-bound individuals among the chemical community to let go of literally centuries of work that turns out not to be valid, but as before I have no particular emotional investment in Brønsted-Lowry and would much prefer to be taught the concepts in a way that actually makes sense. In my list of topics I am supposed to cover acid-base equilibrium, which in the context of water (aqueous solutions) is how hydronium and hydroxide move into and out of solution. First looking at “HA” or a proton donor, we can either have the acidic proton attached to the conjugate base or not. The Lewis basic strength of “A-” determines how tightly the H+ is bonded and therefore how accessible it is to the surrounding water molecules. If the H+ is bonded too tightly, there is no chance of a water molecule ever removing it, and the compound is probably not going to be participating in any aqueous acid-base reactions. At this point I am really wanting to bring in some more organic chemistry concepts and talk about an example like ethanol (CH3CH2OH) as a compound with three distinct types of protons in three different chemical environments, with the hydrogen on the oxygen end (Eth-OH) as well as the two lone pairs on the oxygen being the most interesting electron pair acceptors and donors, but the current general chemistry syllabus as defined by the American Chemical Society (ACS) prevents this. Moving on to “BOH” in water, the strength of the bond between “B+” and hydroxide is also going to be important. As an example, the hydroxl group on ethanol has essentially no chance of being removed in an aqueous solution unless something quite energetic/violent happens, but the hydroxl proton can be stripped off or another proton can bond to one of the lone pairs on oxygen depending on the reaction conditions. In the context of this post, I am basically trying to get into a decent position to talk about buffers. These are modeled by the Henderson Hasselbalch equation and are usually a combination of a weakly proton-donating “HA” with the “A-” part of that molecule paired with a positively charged counterion (counter-cation possibly). As an example cation, let’s choose sodium (Na+), which is a terrible electron pair acceptor because it is already in a noble gas valence electron configuration and adding electrons will be destabilizing. So, we can basically ignore the sodium ions unless we are interested in the total ionic activity for some reason, and at the same time the charges all balance out. If we select the correct “A-” and adjust the relative amounts of “HA” and “NaA”, we end up with a mixture that starts out at a pH that can be predicted via calculation. This is normal when adding proton or hydroxide donors to water, but where buffers are different is the ability to absorb proton or hydroxide inputs without the pH changing much. This is because of the presence of both protonated “HA” and deprotonated “A-” and is useful in situations were the molecules under study cannot tolerate large pH swings, which usually means proteins and other biological molecules. Selecting a buffer requires the concept of the constant of acidic dissociation (Ka) and the negative log of the same (pKa), but between this and Henderson Hasselbalch equation you should have plenty of keywords to play with. I am also supposed to be covering titrations here, but since these are as obsolete as Brønsted-Lowry and really shitty to have to carry out in the lab I’m not going to bother.
It's my first week in OChem and I'm stuck on a homework problem. The problem asks to rank the basicity of 4 different compounds given in the form of bond-line structures. We are given 3 attempts to solve the problem correctly, of which I have used 2. On my first attempt, I took the completely wrong approach (used acid rules). On my second attempt, I figured out the chemical formulas and then researched the pKas of their conjugate acids to figure out which is the strongest. This still didn't seem to be right, although I think my approach is on the right track. The pKas for the conjugate acids for these specific structures are not provided in the textbook. I've never heard analogous structures in this context and could not find a chemistry definition online, so I'm not quite sure what that means. The order displayed in the screen shot below is my most recent attempt. I would appreciate any help. https://preview.redd.it/ak8zd5b7brc61.png?width=1372&format=png&auto=webp&s=70ee3353540a2e304c64ca1cccf0c9cbae89eefd
i.e. 20 glucose molecules linked together would have 19 bonds
Molecular formula
# of molecules * molecular formula - number of bonds * H20 (from hydrolysis)
i.e. when you bond 5 glucose molecules together you have to subtract 4H2O
pH/pOH
-log[H+] = pH
-log[OH-] = pOH
pH + pOH = 14
Leaf surface area
i.e. using graph paper to find surface area
Transpiration rate
Amount of water used / surface area / time
Labs
Transpiration Lab
Basically you take this potometer which measures the amount of water that gets sucked up by a plant that you have and you expose the plant to different environmental conditions (light, humidity, temperature) and see how fast the water gets transpired
Random stuff to know:
It’s hard to get it to work properly
A tight seal of vaseline keeps everything tidy and prevents water from evaporating straight from the tube, also allows for plant to suck properly
Water travels from high water potential to low water potential
2) Cell Structure & Function
Content
Cellular Components
Many membrane-bound organelles evolved from once free prokaryotes via endosymbiosis, such as mitochondria (individual DNA)
Compartmentalization allows for better SA:V ratio and helps regulate cellular processes
Cytoplasm: thick solution in each cell containing water, salts, proteins, etc; everything - nucleus
Cytoplasmic streaming: moving all the organelles around to give them nutrients, speeds up reactions
Cytosol: liquid of the cytoplasm (mostly water)
Plasma Membrane: separates inside of cell from extracellular space, controls what passes through amphipathic area (selectively permeable)
Aquaporin: hole in membrane that allows water through
Cell Wall: rigid polysaccharide layer outside of plasma membrane in plants/fungi/bacteria
Bacteria have peptidoglycan, fungi have chitin, and plants have cellulose and lignin
Turgor pressure pushes the membrane against the wall
Nucleus: contains genetic information
Has a double membrane called the nuclear envelope with pores
Nucleolus: in nucleus, produces ribosomes
Chromosomes: contain DNA
Centrioles: tubulin thing that makes up centrosome in the middle of a chromosome
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: storage of proteins and lipids
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: synthesizes and packages proteins
Chloroplasts: photosynthetic, sunlight transferred into chemical energy and sugars
More on this in photosynthesis
Vacuoles: storage, waste breakdown, hydrolysis of macromolecules, plant growth
Plasmodesmata: channels through cell walls that connect adjacent cells
Golgi Apparatus: extracellular transport
Lysosome: degradation and waste management
Mutations in the lysosome cause the cell to swell with unwanted molecules and the cell will slow down or kill itself
Mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell
Mutations in the mitochondria cause a lack of deficiency of energy in the cell leading to an inhibition of cell growth
Vesicles: transport of intracellular materials
Microtubules: tubulin, stiff, mitosis, cell transport, motor proteins
Microfilaments: actin, flexible, cell movement
Flagella: one big swim time
Cilia: many small swim time
Peroxisomes: bunch of enzymes in a package that degrade H202 with catalase
Ribosomes: protein synthesis
Microvilli: projections that increase cell surface area like tiny feetsies
In the intestine, for example, microvilli allow more SA to absorb nutrients
Cytoskeleton: hold cell shape
Cellular Transport
Passive transport: diffusion
Cell membranes selectively permeable (large and charged repelled)
Tonicity: osmotic (water) pressure gradient
Cells are small to optimize surface area to volume ratio, improving diffusion
Primary active transport: ATP directly utilized to transport
Secondary active transport: something is transported using energy captured from movement of other substance flowing down the concentration gradient
Endocytosis: large particles enter a cell by membrane engulfment
Phagocytosis: “cell eating”, uses pseudopodia around solids and packages it within a membrane
Pinocytosis: “cell drinking”, consumes droplets of extracellular fluid
Receptor-mediated endocytosis: type of pinocytosis for bulk quantities of specific substances
Exocytosis: internal vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and secrete large molecules out of the cell
Ion channels and the sodium potassium pump
Ion channel: facilitated diffusion channel that allows specific molecules through
Sodium potassium pump: uses charged ions (sodium and potassium)
Membrane potential: voltage across a membrane
Electrogenic pump: transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane
Proton pump: transports protons out of the cell (plants/fungi/bacteria)
Cotransport: single ATP-powered pump transports a specific solute that can drive the active transport of several other solutes
Bulk flow: one-way movement of fluids brought about by pressure
Dialysis: diffusion of solutes across a selective membrane
Cellular Components Expanded: The Endomembrane System
Nucleus + Rough ER + Golgi Bodies
Membrane and secretory proteins are synthesized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum, vesicles with the integral protein fuse with the cis face of the Golgi apparatus, modified in Golgi, exits as an integral membrane protein of the vesicles that bud from the Golgi’s trans face, protein becomes an integral portion of that cell membrane
Calculations
Surface area to volume ratio of a shape (usually a cube)
U-Shaped Tube (where is the water traveling)
Solution in u-shaped tube separated by semi-permeable membrane
find average of solute (that is able to move across semi permeable membrane)
add up total molar concentration on both sides
water travels where concentration is higher
Water Potential = Pressure Potential + Solute Potential
Solute Potential = -iCRT
i = # of particles the molecule will make in water
C = molar concentration
R = pressure constant (0.0831)
T = temperature in kelvin
Labs
Diffusion and Osmosis
Testing the concentration of a solution with known solutions
Dialysis bag
Semipermeable bag that allows the water to pass through but not the solute
Potato core
Has a bunch of solutes inside
Relevant Experiments
Lynne Margolis: endosymbiotic theory (mitochondria lady)
Chargaff: measured A/G/T/C in everything (used UV chromatography)
Franklin + Watson and Crick: discovered structure of DNA; Franklin helped with x ray chromatography
3) Cellular Energetics
Content
Reactions and Thermodynamics
Baseline: used to establish standard for chemical reaction
Catalyst: speeds up a reaction (enzymes are biological catalysts)
Exergonic: energy is released
Endergonic: energy is consumed
Coupled reactions: energy lost/released from exergonic reaction is used in endergonic one
Laws of Thermodynamics:
First Law: energy cannot be created nor destroyed, and the sum of energy in the universe is constant
Second Law: energy transfer leads to less organization (greater entropy)
Third Law: the disorder (entropy) approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches 0
Cellular processes that release energy may be coupled with other cellular processes
Loss of energy flow means death
Energy related pathways in biological systems are sequential to allow for a more controlled/efficient transfer of energy (product of one metabolic pathway is reactant for another)
Bioenergetics: study of how energy is transferred between living things
Fuel + 02 = CO2 + H20
Combustion, Photosynthesis, Cellular Respiration (with slight differences in energy)
Enzymes
Speed up chemical processes by lowering activation energy
Structure determines function
Active sites are selective
Enzymes are typically tertiary- or quaternary-level proteins
Catabolic: break down / proteases and are exergonic
Anabolic: build up and are endergonic
Enzymes do not change energy levels
Substrate: targeted molecules in enzymatic
Many enzymes named by ending substrate in “-ase”
Enzymes form temporary substrate-enzyme complexes
Enzymes remain unaffected by the reaction they catalyze
Enzymes can’t change a reaction or make other reactions occur
Induced fit: enzyme has to change its shape slightly to accommodate the substrate
Cofactor: factor that help enzymes catalyze reactions (org or inorg)
Examples: temp, pH, relative ratio of enzyme and substrate
Organic cofactors are called coenzymes
Denaturation: enzymes damaged by heat or pH
Regulation: protein’s function at one site is affected by the binding of regulatory molecule to a separate site
Enzymes enable cells to achieve dynamic metabolism - undergo multiple metabolic processes at once
Cannot make an endergonic reaction exergonic
Steps to substrates becoming products
Substrates enters active site, enzyme changes shape
Substrates held in active site by weak interactions (i.e. hydrogen bonds)
Substrates converted to product
Product released
Active site available for more substrate
Rate of enzymatic reaction increases with temperature but too hot means denaturation
Inhibitors fill the active site of enzymes
Some are permanent, some are temporary
Competitive: block substrates from their active sites
Non competitive (allosteric): bind to different part of enzyme, changing the shape of the active site
Allosteric regulation: regulatory molecules interact with enzymes to stimulate or inhibit activity
Enzyme denaturation can be reversible
Cellular Respiration
Steps
Glycolysis
Acetyl co-A reactions
Krebs / citric acid cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation
Brown fat: cells use less efficient energy production method to make heat
Absorption vs action spectrum (broader, cumulative, overall rate of photosynthesis)
Components
Chloroplast
Mesophyll: interior leaf tissue that contains chloroplasts
Pigment: substance that absorbs light
Steps
Light-Dependent Reaction
Light-Independent (Dark) Reaction (Calvin Cycle)
Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation)
Glycolysis yields 2ATP + 2NADH + 2 Pyruvate
2NADH + 2 Pyruvate yields ethanol and lactate
Regenerates NAD+
Calculations
Calculate products of photosynthesis & cellular respiration
Labs
Enzyme Lab
Peroxidase breaks down peroxides which yields oxygen gas, quantity measured with a dye
Changing variables (i.e. temperature) yields different amounts of oxygen
Photosynthesis Lab
Vacuum in a syringe pulls the oxygen out of leaf disks, no oxygen causes them to sink in bicarbonate solution, bicarbonate is added to give the disks a carbon source for photosynthesis which occurs at different rates under different conditions, making the disks buoyant
Cellular Respiration Lab
Use a respirometer to measure the consumption of oxygen (submerge it in water)
You put cricket/animal in the box that will perform cellular respiration
You put KOH in the box with cricket to absorb the carbon dioxide (product of cellular respiration)-- it will form a solid and not impact your results
Relevant Experiments
Engelmann
Absorption spectra dude with aerobic bacteria
4) Cell Communication & Cell Cycle
Content
Cell Signalling
Quorum sensing: chemical signaling between bacteria
See Bonnie Bassler video
Taxis/Kinesis: movement of an organism in response to a stimulus (chemotaxis is response to chemical)
Ligand: signalling molecule
Receptor: ligands bind to elicit a response
Hydrophobic: cholesterol and other such molecules can diffuse across the plasma membrane
Hydrophilic: ligand-gated ion channels, catalytic receptors, G-protein receptor
Signal Transduction
Process by which an extracellular signal is transmitted to inside of cell
Pathway components
Signal/Ligand
Receptor protein
Relay molecules: second messengers and the phosphorylation cascade
DNA response
Proteins in signal transduction can cause cancer if activated too much (tumor)
RAS: second messenger for growth factor-- suppressed by p53 gene (p53 is protein made by gene) if it gets too much
Response types
Gene expression changes
Cell function
Alter phenotype
Apoptosis- programmed cell death
Cell growth
Secretion of various molecules
Mutations in proteins can cause effects downstream
Pathways are similar and many bacteria emit the same chemical within pathways, evolution!
Feedback
Positive feedback amplifies responses
Onset of childbirth, lactation, fruit ripening
Negative feedback regulates response
Blood sugar (insulin goes down when glucagon goes up), body temperature
Cell cycle
Caused by reproduction, growth, and tissue renewal
Checkpoint: control point that triggers/coordinates events in cell cycle
Mitotic spindle: microtubules and associated proteins
Cytoskeleton partially disassembles to provide the material to make the spindle
Elongates with tubulin
Shortens by dropping subunits
Aster: radial array of short microtubules
Kinetochores on centrosome help microtubules to attach to chromosomes
Broke apart liver cells and realized the significance of the signal transduction pathway, as the membrane and the cytoplasm can’t activate glycogen phosphorylase by themselves
5) Heredity
Content
Types of reproduction
Sexual: two parents, mitosis/meiosis, genetic variation/diversity (and thus higher likelihood of survival in a changing environment)
Asexual: doesn’t require mate, rapid, almost genetically identitical (mutations)
Binary fission (bacteria)
Budding (yeast cells)
Fragmentation (plants and sponges)
Regeneration (starfish, newts, etc.)
Meiosis
One diploid parent cell undergoes two rounds of cell division to produce up to four haploid genetically varied cells
n = 23 in humans, where n is the number of unique chromosomes
Meiosis I
Prophase: synapsis (two chromosome sets come together to form tetrad), chromosomes line up with homologs, crossing over
Metaphase: tetrads line up at metaphase plate, random alignment
Anaphase: tetrad separation, formation at opposite poles, homologs separate with their centromeres intact
Telophase: nuclear membrane forms, two haploid daughter cells form
Meiosis II
Prophase: chromosomes condense
Metaphase: chromosomes line up single file, not pairs, on the metaphase plate
Anaphase: chromosomes split at centromere
Telophase: nuclear membrane forms and 4 total haploid cells are produced
Genetic variation
Crossing over: homologous chromosomes swap genetic material
Independent assortment: homologous chromosomes line up randomly
Random fertilization: random sperm and random egg interact
Gametogenesis
Spermatogenesis: sperm production
Oogenesis: egg cells production (¼ of them degenerate)
Fundamentals of Heredity
Traits: expressed characteristics
Gene: “chunk” of DNA that codes for a specific trait
Homologous chromosomes: two copies of a gene
Alleles: copies of chromosome may differ bc of crossing over
Homozygous/Heterozygous: identical/different
Phenotype: physical representation of genotype
Generations
Parent or P1
Filial or F1
F2
Law of dominance: one trait masks the other one
Complete: one trait completely covers the other one
Incomplete: traits are both expressed
Codominance: traits combine
Law of segregation (Mendel): each gamete gets one copy of a gene
Law of independent assortment (Mendel): traits segregate independently from one another
Locus: location of gene on chromosome
Linked genes: located on the same chromosome, loci less than 50 cM apart
Gene maps and linkage maps
Nondisjunction: inability of chromosomes to separate (ex down syndrome)
Polygenic: many genes influence one phenotype
Pleiotropic: one gene influences many phenotypes
Epistasis: one gene affects another gene
Mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA is inherited maternally
Diseases/Disorders
Genetic:
Tay-Sachs: can’t break down specific lipid in brain
Sickle cell anemia: misshapen RBCs
Color blindness
Hemophilia: lack of clotting factors
Chromosomal:
Turner: only one X chromosome
Klinefelter: XXY chromosomes
Down syndrome (trisomy 21): nondisjunction
Crosses
Sex-linked stuff
Blood type
Barr bodies: in women, two X chromosomes; different chromosomes expressed in different parts of the body, thus creating two different phenotype expressions in different places
Calculations
Pedigree/Punnett Square
Recombination stuff
Recombination rate = # of recombinable offspring/ total offspring (times 100) units: map units
Relevant Experiments
Mendel
6) Gene Expression and Regulation
Content
DNA and RNA Structure
Prokaryotic organisms typically have circular chromosomes
Plasmids = extrachromosomal circular DNA molecules
Purines (G, A) are double-ringed while pyrimidines (C, T, U) have single ring
snRNA - small nuclear RNA (bound to snRNPs - small nuclear ribonucleoproteins)
miRNA - microRNA (regulatory)
DNA Replication
Steps:
Helicase opens up the DNA at the replication fork.
Single-strand binding proteins coat the DNA around the replication fork to prevent rewinding of the DNA.
Topoisomerase works at the region ahead of the replication fork to prevent supercoiling.
Primase synthesizes RNA primers complementary to the DNA strand.
DNA polymerase III extends the primers, adding on to the 3' end, to make the bulk of the new DNA.
RNA primers are removed and replaced with DNA by DNA polymerase I.
The gaps between DNA fragments are sealed by DNA ligase.
Protein Synthesis
61 codons code for amino acids, 3 code as STOP - UAA, UAG, UGA - 64 total
Transcription Steps:
RNA polymerase binds to promoter (before gene) and separate the DNA strands
RNA polymerase fashions a complementary RNA strand from a DNA strand
Coding strand is same as RNA being made, template strand is complementary
Terminator on gene releases the RNA polymerase
RNA Processing Steps (Eukaryotes):
5’ cap and 3’ (poly-A tail, poly A polymerase) tail is added to strand (guanyl transferase)
Splicing of the RNA occurs in which introns are removed and exons are added by spliceosome
Cap/tail adds stability, splicing makes the correct sequence (“gibberish”)
Translation Steps:
Initiation complex is the set up of a ribosome around the beginning of an mRNA fragment
tRNA binds to codon, amino acid is linked to other amino acid
mRNA is shifted over one codon (5’ to 3’)
Stop codon releases mRNA
Gene Expression
Translation of mRNA to a polypeptide occurs on ribosomes in the cytoplasm as well as rough ER
Translation of the mRNA occurs during transcription in prokaryotes
Genetic info in retroviruses is an exception to normal laws: RNA to DNA is possible with reverse transcriptase, which allows the virus to integrate into the host’s DNA
Regulatory sequences = stretches of DNA that interact with regulatory proteins to control transcription
Epigenetic changes can affect expression via mods of DNA or histones
Observable cell differentiation results from the expression of genes for tissue-specific proteins
Induction of transcription factors during dev results in gene expression
Prokaryotes: operons transcribed in a single mRNA molecule, inducible system
Eukaryotes: groups of genes may be influenced by the same transcription factors to coordinate expression
Promoters = DNA sequences that RNA polymerase can latch onto to initiate
Negative regulators inhibit gene expression by binding to DNA and blocking transcription
Acetylation (add acetyl groups)- more loosely wound/ less tightly coiled/compressed
Methylation of DNA (add methyl groups) - less transcription- more tightly wound
Mutation and Genetic Variation
Disruptions in genes (mutations) change phenotypes
Mutations can be +/-/neutral based on their effects that are conferred by the protein formed - environmental context
Errors in DNA replication or repair as well as external factors such as radiation or chemical exposure cause them
Mutations are the primary source of genetic variation
Horizontal acquisition in prokaryotes - transformation (uptake of naked DNA), transduction (viral DNA transmission), conjugation (cell-cell DNA transfer), and transposition (DNA moved within/between molecules) - increase variation
Related viruses can (re)combine genetic material in the same host cell
Types of mutations: frameshift, deletion, insertion
Genetic Engineering
Electrophoresis separates molecules by size and charge
PCR magnifies DNA fragments
Bacterial transformation introduces DNA into bacterial cells
Operons
Almost always prokaryotic
Promoter region has operator in it
Structural genes follow promoter
Terminator ends operon
Regulatory protein is active repressor
Active repressor can be inactivated
Enhancer: remote gene that require activators
RNAi: interference with miRNA
Anabolic pathways are normally on and catabolic pathways are normally off
Calculations
Transformation efficiency (colonies/DNA)
Numbers of base pairs (fragment lengths)
Cutting enzymes in a plasmid or something (finding the lengths of each section)
Labs
Gel Electrophoresis Lab
Phosphates in DNA make it negative (even though it’s an acid!), so it moves to positive terminal on the board
Smaller DNA is quicc, compare it to a standard to calculate approx. lengths
Bacterial Transformation Lab
Purpose of sugar: arabinose is a promoter which controls the GFP in transformed cells, turns it on, also green under UV
Purpose of flipping upside down: condensation forms but doesn’t drip down
Purpose of heat shock: increases bacterial uptake of foreign DNA
Plasmids have GFP (green fluorescent protein) and ampicillin resistance genes
Calcium solution puts holes in bacteria to allow for uptake of plasmids
PCR Lab
DNA + primers + nucleotides + DNA polymerase in a specialized PCR tube in a thermal cycler
Primers bind to DNA before it can repair itself, DNA polymerase binds to the primers and begins replication
After 30 cycles, there are billions of target sequences
Relevant Experiments
Avery: harmful + harmless bacteria in mice, experimented with proteins vs DNA of bacteria
Griffith: Avery’s w/o DNA vs protein
Hershey and Chase: radioactively labeled DNA and protein
Melson and Stahl: isotopic nitrogen in bacteria, looked for cons/semi/dispersive DNA
Beadle and Tatum: changed medium’s amino acid components to find that a metabolic pathway was responsible for turning specific proteins into other proteins, “one gene one enzyme”
Nirenberg: discovered codon table
7) Natural Selection
Scientific Theory: no refuting evidence (observation + experimentation), time, explain a brand/extensive range of phenomena
Theory of Natural Selection
Definition
Not all offspring (in a population) will survive
Variation among individuals in a population
Some variations were more favourable than others in a particular environment
Those with more favourable variations were more likely to survive and reproduce.
These favourable variations were passed on and increased in frequency over time.
Types of Selection:
Directional selection: one phenotype favored at one of the extremes of the normal distribution
”Weeds out” one phenotype
Ony can happen if a favored allele is already present
Stabilizing Selection: Organisms within a population are eliminated with extreme traits
Favors “average” or medium traits
Ex. big head causes a difficult delivery; small had causes health deficits
Disruptive Selection: favors both extremes and selects against common traits
Ex. sexual selection (seems like directional but it’s not because it only affects one sex, if graph is only males then directional)
Competition for limited resources results in differential survival, favourable phenotypes are more likely to survive and produce more offspring, thus passing traits to subsequent generations.
Biotic and abiotic environments can be more or less stable/fluctuating, and this affects the rate and direction of evolution
Convergent evolution occurs when similar selective pressures result in similar phenotypic adaptations in different populations or species.
Divergent evolution: groups from common ancestor evolve, homology
Different genetic variations can be selected in each generation.
Environments change and apply selective pressures to populations.
Evolutionary fitness is measured by reproductive success.
Natural selection acts on phenotypic variations in populations.
Some phenotypic variations significantly increase or decrease the fitness of the organism in particular environments.
Through artificial selection, humans affect variation in other species.
Humans choose to cause artificial selection with specific traits, accidental selection caused by humans is not artificial
Random occurrences
Mutation
Genetic drift - change in existing allele frequency
Migration
Reduction of genetic variation within a given population can increase the differences between populations of the same species.
Conditions for a population or an allele to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are
Large population size
Absence of migration
No net mutations
Random mating
Absence of selection
Changes in allele frequencies provide evidence for the occurrence of evolution in a population.
Small populations are more susceptible to random environmental impact than large populations.
Gene flow: transference of genes/alleles between populations
Speciation: one species splits off into multiple species
Sympatric (living together i.e. disruption) Allopatric (physically separate, i.e. founder effect) Parapatric (habitats overlapping)
Polyploidy (autopolyploidy), sexual selection
Species: group of populations whose members can interbreed and produce healthy, fertile offspring but can’t breed with other species (ex. a horse and donkey can produce a mule but a mule is nonviable, so it doesn’t qualify)
Morphological definition: body shape and structural characteristics define a species
Ecological species definition: way populations interact with their environments define a species
Phylogenetic species definition: smallest group that shares a common ancestor is a species
Prezygotic barriers: barriers to reproduction before zygote is formed
Geographical error: two organisms are in different areas
Behavioural error (i.e. mating rituals aren’t the same)
Mechanical error: “the pieces don’t fit together”
Temporal error (i.e. one organism comes out at night while the other comes out in the day)
Zygotic/Gametic isolation: sperm and egg don’t physically meet
Postzygotic barriers: barriers to reproduction after zygote is formed
Hybrid viability: developmental errors of offspring
Hybrid fertility: organism is sterilized
Hybrid breakdown: offspring over generations aren’t healthy
Hybrid zone: region in which members of different species meet and mate
Reinforcement: hybrids less fit than parents, die off, strength prezygotic barriers
Fusion: two species may merge into one population
Stability: stable hybrid zones mean hybrids are more fit than parents, thus creating a stable population, but can be selected against in hybrid zones as well
Punctuated equilibria: long periods of no or little change evolutionarily punctuated by short periods of large change, gradualism is just slow evolution
Evidence of evolution
Paleontology (Fossils)
Comparative Anatomy
Embryology: embryos look the same as they grow
Biogeography: distribution of flora and fauna in the environment (pangea!)
Biochemical: DNA and proteins and stuff, also glycolysis
Phylogenetic trees
Monophyletic: common ancestor and all descendants
Polyphyletic: descendants with different ancestors
Paraphyletic: leaving specifies out of group
Out group: basal taxon, doesn’t have traits others do
Cline: graded variation within species (i.e. different stem heights based on altitude)
Anagenesis: one species turning into another species
Cladogenesis: one species turning into multiple species
Taxon: classification/grouping
Clade: group of species with common ancestor
Horizontal gene transfer: genes thrown between bacteria
Shared derived characters: unique to specific group
Shared primitive/ancestral characters: not unique to a specific group but is shared within group
Origins of life
Stages
Inorganic formation of organic monomers (miller-urey experiment)
Inorganic formation of organic polymers (catalytic surfaces like hot rock or sand)
Protobionts and compartmentalization (liposomes, micelles)
DNA evolution (RNA functions as enzyme)
Shared evolutionary characteristics across all domains
Membranes
Cell comm.
Gene to protein
DNA
Proteins
Extant = not extinct
Highly conserved genes = low rates of mutation in history due to criticalness (like electron transport chain)
Molecular clock: dating evolution using DNA evidence
Extinction causes niches for species to fill
Eukaryotes all have common ancestor (shown by membrane-bound organelles, linear chromosomes, and introns)
Calculations
Hardy-Weinberg
p + q = 1
p^2 + 2pq +q^2 = 1
Chi Squared
Labs
Artificial Selection Lab
Trichrome trait hairs
Anthocyanin for second trait (purple stems)
Function of the purple pigment?
Function of trichome hairs?
BLAST Lab
Putting nucleotides into a database outputs similar genes
Relevant Experiments
Darwin
Lamarck
Miller-Urey
Slapped some water, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen is some flasks and simulated early earth with heat and stuff and it made some amino acids.
I am sending out my first email to a potential graduate school advisor and I am a little nervous. I am really interested in this professor's work and the school has an amazing environmental engineering program that I am considering. I was hoping someone could take a look at what I've wrote and give me some advice. I am not really sure what to include or how to format these sorts of emails I have seen it suggested that I read a recent paper of the advisor to reference in the email. I found one that particularly interested me and I percieve to be representative of what their lab studies. The only concern I have is that the advisor is the last author of six. I don't really know the best way to refer to the paper in the email. Would it be wrong to say "you wrote" or should I say "the paper said"? Also, should I even be choosing this paper to reference if they are the last author? (I'm not saying being the last author is bad but I do assume it means they contributed less than the others). I was going to choose a recent paper they published as #1 author, but it has more to do with environmental engineering ethics than the research in thier lab. I will also be including my resume attached to the email! Email text: Dear Dr. ____, My name is ________ and I am in my last year at the University of X studying Environmental Science with a minor in chemistry. I am interested in obtaining a graduate degree at Y University - particularly a Master's of Science in Environmental Engineering. I find the research being conducted in your lab to be very interesting! What you mention on your lab website about bioaugmentation of indigenous microbes and the use of horizontal gene and plasmid conjugal transfer sounds fascinating. I recently read a paper you co-authored, "Investigating the mycobiome of ..." I really enjoyed reading it and I learned more about PAHs, something I don't have too much experience with. It's interesting that the five most abundant PAHs identified in the samples differed from the top 5 PAHs in creosote listed by the American Wood Protection Association. It was suggested that this may be due to weathering. Would this be physical weathering or could it be from microbial degradation? I am interested to know if there would be a way to identify which kind of degradation occurred more. Perhaps there is a by-product of microbial degradation that would be present in the soil as well? I also found it particularly interesting that the data differed from others showing that fungal strains were not inhibited by increasing PAH concentrations. You noted that there was evidence that ascomycetes may outcompete basidiomycetes contrary to previous studies. In my work at the X Center, we explored the use of basidiomycetes as barrier material for coal ash ponds. Although we focused on different contaminants, it is still interesting to contemplate this finding in my own work. I was hoping you might tell me if you are accepting graduate students for Fall of 2021? I believe your lab would be a great fit for me. As I mentioned previously, I have research experience in bioremediation with the X Center as well as microbial ecology experience in the Y lab at the University of X that I believe could be a good addition to your cohort. I have attached my resume to this email where I discuss these experiences in more detail. If you have any advice about graduate school or bioremediation studies, I would also love to hear them! I look forward to hearing from you soon! Edit: I am grossly aware of how many times I used the word 'interesting' so I will definitely fix that for the actual email.
Okay, so, I am going to break down this guide into the subjects which I took. Use Control F to read about the subjects you want because this guide is quite long. SL: English A Language & Literature, Spanish Ab Initio, Mathematics HL: Biology, Chemistry, Economics First of all, a huge shoutout to everyone on this sub for all of the help they gave me during the IB, specifically all of those resources and all of the memes to keep me going. A special thanks to the mods who keep the place in control too :). ~~~ English A Language & Literature SL Paper 1: With this paper, I cannot stress enough how much you need to PRACTICE. Practice is the absolute key to being successful on this paper. You could get literally any type of text on this paper, and for this reason you need to practice as much as possible on all of the possible text types (these can be found in the subject guide). Before the exam, try to memorise some of the conventions of each text type to show off to the examiner your text knowledge. I was a teacher who made each person in the class do a list of conventions for each text then send it to the class, but if not you may want to try and do this. I get that practice can take a ton of time, so for this reason just annotate the texts that come up in Paper 1's, you do not need to write the full essay. You also may want to make a list of all of the stylistic devices which come up, and their relevance (I have a sheet of these which I can upload if anyone wants it). Specifically when actually writing this paper, you want to link all of your analysis to one main idea, which our teacher taught us to be the PURPOSE of the text. So, if in doubt during the exam, link things to the purpose of the text, and make sure you actually believe in the purpose that you are writing about, because if not you will struggle to avoid going on a tangent. In each of your analysis paragraphs start off with a topic sentence i.e. "X text uses Y feature to convey the purpose", then do your analysis then finish off with a link back to the purpose. If you are struggling to think of points to make in your essay, just think of the BIG 5 (Purpose, Themes, Stylistic Devices, Mood and Structure). Also, remember 1 thing, every single thing on the text is there for a reason, so you can analyse everything i.e. Pictures (I have a note sheet on how to analyse pictures as well, if anyone wants it let me know and I can upload it), Slogans, Titles, Captions, etc. Paper 2: First thing that I will say for this is please read the books, like there is no way around it. My teacher gave us a booklet of quotes for both texts that we studied for the exam (Miss Julie and Never Let Me Go), and it was still useless until I actually read both books. To be honest, there is nothing more valuable for Paper 2 then listening in class. When you read the books and listen to class discussion on them, you begin to understand the themes, moods, characters and plots further, and you begin to articulate your own opinions on the texts which is KEY for the exam. What you want to do ahead of the exam is make notes through specific quotes, and you want to link all of them to context. No matter which question you choose to answer, you must include context to score highly. During the exam you need to make a judgement call on which quotes that you have memorized fit the question best, and if the quotes do not fit the questions perfectly, don't worry. A big part to scoring highly on Paper 2 is your close analysis (i.e. talking about denotations and connotations of words and phrases), so if you do have to choose quotes which don't perfectly fit, you inbed analysis perfectly. Also, ANALYSE your quotes before the exam, and memorize some of that analysis, because if you can memorize links to context and some of the more complex literary devices, it will help you when writing your essay. With your quotes, you want to be able to link all of them to at least one character, symbol and one piece of context. LitCharts can do this for you luckily, and it is really good at doing it, and I used them so much when revising for exams. Two final things before I finish the Paper 2 section: Have faith in yourself because it can screw you over when you change your strategy on the actual exam day (I learned about this from my mocks), and you do not need too many quotes to be successful, I think I had 7-8 for each book and I was fine. You want to PRACTICE as much as possible before this paper, and you do not have to write full essays, you can simply plan them and use your quotes for them. IOC, FOA and Written Task: Before I took this class, I absolutely hated English, and it was a huge relief to learn that you can have 50% of your final grade decided prior to even writing an exam, so take advantage of this! This means that your FOA, IOC and Written Task are incredibly important. If you nail these, you can afford to have a bad day on Paper 1 if your texts aren't too good, and it can be a source of relief if you don't think your exams went well. In your IOC, you want to prepare by looking at the extracts which your teacher has given you (if they give any), or read your book constantly and try to analyze any quote that you think is gold when reading (A good exersize for this is opening a random page of your texts, and just analysing everything). When it comes to the actual thing, I would recommend bringing 4 or 5 different highlighters into the exam, and highlighting the quotes with the theme you think that they link to, so that you have some structure set for your IOC, and then you can weave between these and make some creative points. You want to learn about your stylistic devices, links to the rest of the text and links to context as these are what can help you to score highly. In your FOA, I'm not sure if your teacher will give you prompt on what you should do it on but if they do not, I would reccomend doing it on comparing two famous speeches. I did this with one of my best mates who I had a lot of trust in, and we compared a Winston Churchill speech to the Barack Obama Inaugural Speech. We both found this okay because the speeches have a TON of techniques inside them which you can show off in your FOA. So, if anyone were to ask me what to do an FOA on, I would say that. Just search up some of the world's most famous speeches, and choose one which interests you. No matter what topic you choose, analyse specific extracts on them for stylistic devices, aristotelian appeals (i.e. Ethos, Pathos, Logos (Which you can include in Papers 1 and 2 as well)), mood, themes and effects of what they do. Do video recorded practices before you do it and ask yourself questions on what is uncertain and what more you could include and you should be good. Your written task on it's own is worth 20%, so try as hard as you can on making sure that you nail this completely. Our class was made to do 3 of these, and then we had to submit one, and I think doing 3 was the perfect amount. Even if you think that your first one is great, try as hard as possible on all 3, because naturally your analysis skills will get better over your time in the course so a similar amount of effort can produce better work. Plus, it gives you a choice on what you actually want to submit at the end of the course. Since you have a lot of independence on this, and it is technically not mean't to be an "essay", I would choose something that I enjoy, as you will put more effort into it. The written task I ended up submitting was on my IOC texts, as I surprisingly enjoyed writing that the most, but you have many options on what you can write it on (all the way from writing to an editor criticizing their recent article to writing as a person from your text to your family member (which is what I did)). ~~~ Spanish Ab Initio Paper 1: I got a 5 in Spanish Ab Initio (1 mark off of a 6), so I do not think that I can give you the best advice ever. But basically, in my opinion, the bottom line with this is that you need to do two things: Learn a ton of vocab ahead of the exam and do practice papers (add any words which you don't understand into something like a quizlet set so that you can learn it). I just want to give some fair warning before anyone takes this class, IT IS NOT EASY and effort needs to be made to do well in the exam (After exams I realized I probably should've revised a lot more for this, so don't be like me and do small amounts of revision over the two years). The grade boundaries are really high because fluent people take the exams, so you need to have a good understanding of Spanish to get a 7. Process of elimination can be really helpful for the Paper 1 exams if you are in doubt, and during reading time you want to skim through the texts and FOCUS ON WHAT YOU KNOW rather than dwelling on what you do not understand, because that will not get you anywhere. Paper 2: One thing that you should probably know before you do this exam is that 12% (3/25) of the marks are just FORMATTING, so please learn how to format all of the different text types. For this exam what you want to know is your conjugations for about 6/7 tenses which you can use (Present, present continuous, future, near future, conditional, imperfect and preterite were the ones I learned), but I would say to learn tenses continuously over the 2 years so that it becomes second nature to you after a while. I didn't do this and on the exam day I wanted to conjugate some irregular verbs, and struggled to as it does not stick to memory too well. The people who got level 7's in my class also knew some more of the complex tenses such as Pluperfect and subjunctive, but you don't need to know the full tense necessarily, just memorize some general phrases in these two tenses which you can use in your writing. Doing practice papers for both paper 1 and 2 will help you to get a grasp of common types of questions and topics which also come up, so practice! Speaking Exam and Written Assignment: A large chunk of your final Spanish Ab Initio exam grade is, similarly to English Lang Lit, decided before you actually take the exam. So, once again, I will say take advantage of this. When it comes to the speaking exam, a lot of it does come down to your luck on the day, especially when it comes to preparing for the picture which you may recieve. What I did to prepare for this initial part of the exam was think of all of the possible kinds of photos I could get (i.e. A market, street, beach, campsite, factory, etc.) and would think of what I would say for each picture in English, then simply translate those words to Spanish and make Quizlet sets with it. Following this, for the questions part of the exam, I thought of questions in specific topic areas (Family, individuals, holidays, environment, the area you live, sports, health, etc.) which could come up (Paper 2 writing prompts can actually help you to come up with these), and write model answers to these. I may have some sheets of possible questions, if you guys would like me to upload them. Oh, 1 more thing, during your prep time for the Speaking exam, when thinking about how to descirbe the picture, divide the picture into 9 equally sized squares, and describe them one by one. This enables you to actually describe the photo but also show to the examiner that you know your words for location, so memorize location words (i.e. On the right, next to, behind, etc.). Regarding the written assignment, it took me a long time to think of a topic which actually interested me, and that I knew that I could score highly on. I initially wanted to do one on comparing a typical football matchday in England to that in Spain, but someone in my class had taken it, so mine was on public transport. And, if you are stuck on which topic to choose, I would say do one on public transport. I scored 19/20 on my written assignment, and doing a written assignment on public transport allowed me to show off a lot of knowledge. In order to make it incredibly clear to the examiner that you are formatting your assignment correctly, I would have seperately bolded sections which say: Description, Comparison and Reflection. You must remember that the reflection is worth the most marks, so you should use most of your words there, since your word limit is so low. In your description, you only need 3 facts about your topic in the Spanish speaking country and in your comparison I would recommend doing 2 similarities and 2 differences in the cultures as your writing is more balanced then. When writing your reflection, I would use the same facts as the ones in your comparison so that your writing flows and is easier to understand. In the reflection, try to give some opinion phrases, which are both negative and positive, and try to link it to wider topic areas (so for me, that was talking about the environment). ~~~ Mathematics SL: Paper 1 and 2: Following learning everything on the syllabus (be sure to read the actual subject guide), past papers are your best friend. In my opinion, all of the textbooks that I came across for Mathematics SL were okay at teaching the topics, but when it came to the practice questions, they were average at best. The textbook questions just are never like the exam questions, and I feel like if I had spent more time doing past papers (starting from the very beginning), I could have finished with a level 7. The IB Questionbank is fantastic for this as it breaks down questions by topic and paper, so you know exactly what you are practising. If you can afford it, Revision Village is fantastic as well, because it does what the Questionbank does, but also breaks them down by difficulty and works you through problems. During the actual exam, check your work as you go, because it sucks to have done so much hard work on a section B question, only to find out that you made a small error in the first part. The IB has started to like asking more obscure and application based questions in Mathematics SL now, so practice these as much as you possibly can. Also, when doing the actual exam, look at how many marks each question is worth, this can save you big time. I ended up missing out on a level 7 by one mark, and I was so annoyed to see that because I remember spending 5 minutes just staring at a 2 mark trigonometry question which was just asking about SOHCAHTOA. Wasting time on that question prevented me from answering a probability question (about 6-8 marks total) at the end of the paper, so MOVE ON if you do not understand what a question is asking. In Paper 2, you have got a calculator for a reason, so use it for all of the questions, and for questions where you do not have to actually write too much, write "used GDC" on the paper, and quickly sketch graphs as necessary, to make it clear to the examiner. On some questions which require more work, I would recommend checking and working backwards with a different method i.e. On a quadratic question which asks you to solve by completing the square, check with your graph or simple factorizing. Internal Assessment / The Exploration: The first thing I will say, and I believe this applies to all of the IA's is: Choose a topic which interests you. I ended up doing one on a topic which related to my HL Economics class to show some personal engagement, but I feel as though I would have done a bit better if I had chosen something which interested me more. In Maths, you really want to map out what your start point is and what you want to have learned by the end, then you can actually plan the logistics of what happens in between. It will also help you to stay motivated and avoid getting confused and stressed when writing it, which can mean that you put more effort into writing it as well. In addition, I would say the IA does not have to be too complex, I ended up including topics which were a bit above SL level, but some people in my class scored higher than me even with just including SL material. Furthermore, I would say that once you have chosen a certain area of maths that you want to focus on, stick to it, and do not integrate more topics into it because you can really show off your use of mathematics if you have a strong focus in one area. Majority of the points in the IA are not actually specifically maths related, so make sure that you format your IA correctly, and make sure that is easy to both read and understand. ~~~ Biology HL Paper 1: Okay, unfortunately it must be said, you kinda need to know everything for all 3 Biology HL papers because the topics which come up, especially in Paper 1's, vary year on year so you need to be prepared for anything. Paper 1 tests the most random areas of the syllabus, and requires you to know many small details in topic areas. To remember these specifics for this paper, I would recommend learning via quizlet sets and mnemonics (i.e. King Phillip Came Over For Gay Sex (Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species) for the heirarchy of taxa (Yeah, its weird. I had the same reaction when our teacher told us it, but you remember it.)). On each of the 40 questions they test different areas of the syllabus, and now they love to test people on application points on the syllabus, so learn all of these. There are 2 general things which you can keep your eye out for: The first one being that whenever an image is shown, read the link to see if it gives any hints on the answer, you would be surprised how often it gives it away. The second being, if you know the order of the topics in the syllabus, this is typically the order in which they ask questions in Paper 1, so you usually know the first questions are on cells and the last ones are on human physiology (so if one of the options seems far fetched based on where it is found in the syllabus you know it is not true). Paper 2: First thing that I want to say for Paper 2 is practice data based questions, as you are doing revision for the actual exams and are memorizing content, take half an hour out of your Biology revision to just do data based questions. You need practice for those to be able to read graphs quickly, and be able to interpret many of them at once, so print them out of the past papers and just do them as you revise, because they are worth a lot of marks. SL data based questions are good to start off with because they are a bit shorter, but then you can ease yourself into the HL ones. Next, for those 3 mark questions which come at the end of the data based questions every year, learn some generic marking points which you can write if you have no clue what is going on because they are pretty similar every year (i.e. Effects in different animals aren't the same, you need more repeats, you need to test in more climates/places, etc.). For the rest of the paper, similarly to Paper 1, you just need to learn all of the material. I would personally use the Oxford Textbook to revise, complemented with The Science Codex and IB Dead websites because the Oxford textbook has a lot of extra info which you do not need to know. If you prefer to revise by watching, I would recommend Stephanie Castle, Crash Course and Alex Lee. Although I did finish with a level 6, I was 1 mark off of a level 7, despite working at a high 5 and low 6 level throughout the course, and the one thing which made a big difference was taking all of the extended answer questions, seperating them topic by topic and compiling all of the markschemes together per specific syllabus point. The IB can only ask so many extended response questions, and by doing this and memorizing these markschemes, you get a good idea on the key words which the IB love to see, and implementing them becomes second nature to you. So, if you were to revise very last minute for your course, I would recommend doing this markscheme technique, as the people who score very highly usually do very well on their Paper 2 extended response questions. I would not recommend the Oxford Study Guide, the textbook is much better because the study guide is too condensed, and lacks details in some of the topics, for example in Chapter 5: Evolution. One more thing, make sure that you know ALL of the application points, the IB asks about them so much and when memorized they aren't hard marks to get. Paper 3: The one part to this paper which confused me the whole time was Section A, an area in which you could be asked about anything on the course, including your practicals. Pay attention when you do complusory practicals in class, you save a lot of time, as many people learn by doing things. Once you have done all of these practicals, what I did to revise was make a diagram of every practical and annotate it in as much detail as I could, and then on the side of it evaluate the pros and cons of the practical, and jot down its possible applications. That pretty much covers anything which could be asked about your practicals, and use the questionbank to find previous practical questions. And you know how I mentioned those application points before, well the IB has started to ask about them in Section A questions on Paper 3, so know them inside out before. Section B for me was actually okay, I did Option D: Human Phys which our teacher had recommended and I found it very interesting. Similar 6 mark questions come up in this Option every year, and there is not too much to memorize at all. If you are confused on which option to learn, I would say learn Human Physiology. Again, here, the markscheme technique works fine to compile a bank of knowledge, and doing that with the resources that I have shown should be okay. They usually like to ask about similar things from each topic area, so when you practice past papers you get the gist of what these topic areas actually are. But, as I said with Papers 1 and 2, you just have to memorise the material here again. Make sure that you learn all of your diagrams here, as you need to in Paper 2, as well as definitions, as questions on labelling diagrams are common, and if you are completely stuck on one question, giving a few definitions can usually help you to pick up some marks. Internal Assessment: One bit of warning our teacher gave us before we did our IA's was don't worry if your experiment doesn't work completely, nobody's does. So, it's okay to have some errors in your experiment, and have to change your methodology a bit as long as you reflect on your changes and preliminary work in your IA. Online there are a bunch of what to include checklists, so use these as in my opinion they are pretty good and help to give your IA some sort of focus. Personal engagement marks are important, so imbed small bits of personal engagement into your IA as you are writing it, and as I had mentionned before, if you can reflect on your errors and preliminary work it shows personal engagement and reflection. The personal engagement doesn't have to be completely true, as there is only so much interest you can have in one experiment, and you want to save some pages for all of your reflection and analysis. You want to make sure that you are plotting accurate graphs, and that the calculations associated with those data points are accurate, because those are marks that you can avoid. The page limit is quite low for the Biology IA, so do not make a title page or contents page, just number your sections as you go. I personally would recommend including statistical testing into your IA in order to do some numerical analysis of your data. You can do standard deviation on your graph's data points, and if you have space, and deem it appropriate, you could include another statistical test such as an ANOVA, which tests the relationship between variables. Just remember that the IA is worth 20%, so it is nice to have it as a safety net in case of a difficult exam. ~~~ Chemistry HL Paper 1: For chem, as with all 3 papers, past papers are your friend because there are some common topics which come up in multiple choice exams and if you nail down those chapters you can score highly. The chapters which you need to nail down in order to be successful are: Stoichiometry, Kinetics, Energetics & Thermochemistry and Organic Chemistry. Oh, and one more chapter, BONDING. Bonding is the chapter which the whole course is built on, and if you understand this chapter understanding everything else will become a hell of a lot easier, especially in the tougher chapters such as organic chemistry and acids and bases. But, again, you can never predict an IB exam, so revise all of the chapters, but the chapters that I named before, especially Bonding, are very common topics on Paper 1 and Paper 2, so you want to make sure that you understand them inside out. Like in Biology HL, mnemonics and quizlet sets are good to remember things, such as equations and definitions. Mnemonics are especially useful to learn periodicity, where the IB likes to ask about the most random trends in the periodic table, so you should simple memorise those as they are marks that you don't want to be losing. Make sure that you know error calculations for this paper, as the final couple of questions are usually on this area, and nail balancing equations as the first few questions are usually related to this. Paper 2: Like in Biology HL, you literally need to know everything for this paper because there are too many areas which have been asked about before. But, luckily for us, we have good resources that are availale, such as Richard Thornley's Youtube channel and the Pearson textbook, which are both absolute gold. Richard Thornley goes through all of the topic areas in insane detail, but explains them in a simple way, so I would recommend watching his videos for the very specific areas such as magnetism, dimers, walden inversion, etc. Memorize all of the formulae that you need to know, particularly for Acids and Bases, because the calculation questions are quite similar every year (i.e. Gibbs free energy, pH calculations with pKa values, molar calculations, empirical formula and equilibrium constants). Paper 1 and Paper 2, like in Biology HL, were back-to-back for me so learning everything for this paper does help for Paper 1 as well. There is a very large amount of material in Chemistry HL course too, so review the subject guide closer to exam time to make sure you know everything. Make sure that you know ALL of your organic mechanisms, because you just have to memorize them, and drawing them isn't too hard once memorized. The IB also really likes asking about ligands and coloured transition metals, so learning the markscheme for those classic 3-4 mark questions isn't a bad idea as they do not change too much whatsoever. Past papers are again very helpful here, because you see the topics which come up very often in papers and what the exam board likes to ask about. Learn your periodic trends, because they will always come up and they are marks which you really do not need to lose if you have memorized the material, so just be safe and memorize all of the trends (Although the data book can give some trends away, so keep your eye out for that if you forget them). Another shoutout to the IB Dead website, which has some good quality notes for Chemistry too. VSEPR Theory is your friend as well, it comes up way to often, so make sure that you memorize what the theory comprises of, and memorize all of your bond angles as well. Paper 3: I did the Biochemistry option, and if you do Biology HL, do Biochemistry because it overlaps with Biology quite a bit, and a lot of that memorization that you do for Biology is really helpful for Chemistry too. For section A, similarly to Biology, you can be asked about any of your complusory practicals, so check the subject guide for which practicals these are. Like I said for Biology as well, draw annotated diagrams of each experiment, then write the method used to obtain the data as well as the equiptment, then you can critique it by listing pros and cons of the experiment itself. If you practice past papers, many of them give away these pros and cons via previous questions on experiments, so you should try and do some as you are going through the course because then its one thing less that you have to worry about revising closer to exam time. Regarding section B, for the most part, at least of Biochemistry, it's simply just memorisation. So you kinda need to learn everything for this unfortunately. Past papers will help you with this because there are common areas which are always asked about in most papers (i.e. Hydrolysis, condensation, peptides, DNA, etc.). The markschemes for these topic areas are similar so myou can learn these for some of the longer questions, and the markscheme definitions are the ones which you need to know so do not memorise other definitions for key terms. There are some data based questions here so again doing past papers will help you to practice these kinds of questions. For both biology and chemistry, you don't need to do full past papers at once, use the Questionbank to your advantage and practice questions in specific areas you need to practice. Internal Assessment: Similarly to Biology HL, find checklists online on what to include as they are quite detailed and usually cover all bases. The Science Codex website has fantastic IA examples for both Biology and Chemistry, so if you are stuck on how to structure each of your IAs, or what kind of information to include, use the model IAs there as an example as they scored very highly. Just like in Biology HL, you want to make sure that you nail your calculations and polish your graphs to make sure that there are no errors in them (Be sure to include error calculations, which you then discuss in your reflection and evaluation section). Personal engagement again is just something that you can make up a bit and try to imbed it into the IA as you are writing it, but it helps if you are doing a topic which actually interests you. The big advantage for the Chemistry HL IA is that you don't have to do statistical testing like you can in the Biology HL IA, so it saves you space which you can use instead on calculating error. Make sure that you try quite hard on the IA, because with Chemistry HL exams they can be so unpredictable and difficult sometimes that it's nice for something to be there to help you in case the exam day isnt the best. ~~~ Economics HL Paper 1: This paper is worth 30%, and with practice and past papers, is an exam which you can do very well on. Before I begin talking about anything else, for everything in Economics, even the IAs, use the Cambridge Revision Guide (Economics In A Nutshell), it's possibly one of the best revision guides I have ever used! So this paper is Micro and Macroeconomics, and to do well on the 10 and 15 mark questions, you need to memorise content from the revision guide. For anything that you do not understand in this book, or for extra detail, use EconPlusDal. Both of those resources together are insanely detailed but explained concisely enough that it is easy to follow and understand. The only hard work for this paper is finding real world examples (yes, they are kinda important, though you can make them up a bit if they sound realistic), so as you learn topics I would just search up that respective topic on Google, find some statistics and data to do with it and compile it in a document which is extensive before you sit the actual exam paper. All of the diagrams that you need to know are in the revision guide, and use a few diagrams in each of your responses, in order to visualise the theories which you are referring to. In your body paragraphs to your responses, I used an acronym called DEED (Define, Explain, Example, Diagram), and that really helped to structure my answers to make sure I was hitting all of the points on the generic markscheme. However, in your 15 mark questions, where economic synthesis is also required, I used the acronym CLASPP (Conclusion, Long term + Short term, Assumptions, Stakeholders, Priorities, Pros + Cons) as that would cover all of the aspects of the synthesis for me. In Paper 1s every year, there is usually one Theory of the firm question in Microeconomics and one which is not Theory of the firm, so if you can nail down your knowledge on Theory of the firm, you typically have a nice question which you can answer most years (as there is only so much that they can ask on both aspects of Theory of the firm, although they do prefer to ask about market structures). Paper 2: This paper is also worth 30%, and I found it harder to revise for, because I absolutely despised Development Economics. Nonetheless, as I said with Paper 1, and as I will say with Paper 3, the Cambridge Study Guide is amazing to revise for this paper. In addition, since you do not need real world examples to complement your responses here, everything that you need to know is in that book. In this paper you dont have to worry as much about sticking to DEED and CLASPP, although you could use DEED on your 4 and 8 mark questions if you deem it to be an appropriate place to use it, but make sure ALL examples are from the text, as most of the marks come from there. Seriously, have a look at the markscheme to one of those 8 mark questions, you would be very surprised to see how 80% of those marking points are simply copying what is actually written inside that text booklet, so use it as much as possible! Regarding those random definitions at the start, I would recommend just learning all of the terms in the glossary of the Cambridge Study Guide, as those definitions are very similar to the ones which usually appear in the markschemes, and aren't too long to learn (Use Quizlet if you want some more active revision!). For the 4 mark questions, do not forget Micro and Macroeconomics for Paper 2, as they can still be asked about, especially the Macroeconomics diagrams. Including some of the information from the passage in your 4 mark questions can add some more detail, and despite the question not explicitly saying to do it, it often helps to secure 4 points instead of just 3. Paper 3: I actually really liked this paper, and I believe that it is possible to score 100% on this paper, or at least close to it, if you just practice. Unfortunately, there is no formula booklet or anything in Economics HL to help you when writing this exam, but all of the equations you need to know are in the Cambridge Revision Guide, so learn your material from there. Regarding the 4 mark questions which you will get, they do repeat over time as there is only so much which can be assessed in this paper, so doing past papers will teach you which kinds of phrases to include in these 4 mark questions and which of these 4 mark questions usually comes up. Refresh reading points off of graphs and using those values to plug into equations to get answers, and using multiple equations to find your answers. For a lot of the small bits which have been asked before such as drawing MR curves or explaining why a profit maximisation would attract firms into a market is explained by EconPlusDal very well, so use his videos once again if you do not understand anything. If you don't think that your Paper 1 or Paper 2 went very well, Paper 3 is the paper which is there to help you out, and if you practice papers and learn all of your equations for this paper you should be good. Internal Assessment/ Portfolio: In Economics HL, you have to write 3 different mini-IAs, each 750 words max, which all combine to form a portfolio worth 20%. To start, I would recommend that you should do your third Economics HL IA in International Economics above Development Economics, because your International Economics article options are usually quite good compared to Development, and you can include more diagrams in International Economics. Generally speaking, focus most of your words in each of your IAs on your synthesis, because about 7 of the 15 marks on each of the IAs has something to do with the synthesis, and 2 extra marks for application, so you want to make sure that you nail that analysis really well. Economic diagrams are key, so use them to talk about the theory related to the article as well, because then you hit two birds with one stone. In addition, I would recommend that you choose an article which talks about a problematic situation, compared to one which talks about a positive economic situation, because you can suggest more solutions and have more analysis when there are problems which need to be ammended. Other than that I would say that define your key terms well (The resources I have said do this for you), and bold key terms as you use them to make it very clear that you are using them. ~~~ Well that's my guide done, hope you guys found it helpful :) If you have any questions just reply in the comments or drop me a PM and I'll respond as best as I can to you. Once again, thanks so much to this legendary sub for all of the help they gave during the IB exam period. EDIT: Reddit didn't let me do a post with everything in it, so I will post a part two later with my advice on TOK, EE, CAS and some extra sections for people who want to apply for Medicine in the UK
Part I: Destiny's Main Logo is the Y-Goblet & How it's chemical cocktails reveal everything (The OXA Machine + Way Way More) (Ultra Extreme Deep Lore)
Preface: ///////// Ghost Fragment: Darkness 3 - From Toland The Shattered https://www.ishtar-collective.net/cards/ghost-fragment-darkness-3#toland-the-shattered I drive myself to the edge of madness trying to explain the truth. It's so simple. Elegant like a knife point. It explains - this is not hyperbole, this is the farthest thing from exaggeration - EVERYTHING. But you lay it out and they stare at you like you've just been exhaling dust. Maybe they're missing some underlying scaffold of truth. Maybe they are all propped on a bed of lies that must be burned away. Why does anything exist? No no no no no don't reach for that word. There's no 'reason'. That's teleology and teleology will stitch your eyelids shut. Why do we have atoms?Because atomic matter is more stable than the primordial broth. Atoms defeated the broth. That was the first war. There were two ways to be and one of them won. And everything that came next was made of atoms. Atoms made stars. Stars made galaxies. Worlds simmered down to rock and acid and in those smoking primal seas the first living molecule learned to copy itself. All of this happened by the one law, the blind law, which exists without mind or meaning.It's the simplest law but it has no worshippers here (out there, though, out there - !) HOW DO I EXPLAIN IT it's so simple WHY DON'T YOU SEE (Clue in Book Confessions Entry III to Toland mentioning The Blind Law of Atoms aka WHY CAN'T WE SEE) Book Confessions: Entry III https://www.ishtar-collective.net/entries/entry-iii#book-confessions We are all losing hope, but as long as we are still losing it, then it has not run out. Psions are said to have no sense of humor, because humor comes from the unexpected, and we are clairvoyant. Well, we were not clairvoyant enough to expect the coup, so I suppose we must be blind enough to retain a sense of humor, and I can still laugh at our predicament: the loyal retinue of the Curious Emperor, the Emperor of Joyous Excess, marooned in absolute nothingness. The Scientist: Freeborn Otzot, Psion Savanthttps://www.destinypedia.com/Cabal_Booklet Centuries after we destroyed thePsions' clairvoyantOXA Machine, word reached me that it had been rebuilt on the moon ofBrand. The Evocate-General sent her ships to bomb the moon. In my imperial forgiveness, I stopped her ships. I asked myself: who but a true genius could reconstruct the OXA? Who but a Psion who craved the OXA's power to see the unseen? Surely we could use that mind! I invited the builder to join me at a fete in her honor. She was called Otzot, freeborn Psion, and she glowed with the power of her thoughts. She said, "Is this not Calus's new Empire, an empire of achievement? Can't the Psions grow fat in thought, as you grow fat with power?" I said, you have a deal! I name you Imperial Dreamer, and you will have all that you need. All of us are stronger when we join hands in song - Cabal and Psion, Sindû and Clipse, Arkborn and all the others. If only I could have sensed her thoughts, as she so ably sensed mine. When I moved to free the indentured Psions, I threatened Otzot's superior status as a freeborn. She joined the conspiracy against me. She used the OXA to transmit messages in secret - the military's plans for their coup. Otzot must die. She can sense the hostility and focus of an assassin. Somehow you must reach her undetected. Approach her in joy and trust, as I once did. Then you have hope. https://youtu.be/GuJuRp98OuM?t=421 The end of The Insight Terminus Strike, were Otzot is being tracked by a reflection of Maya Sundaresh#12 from the Ishtar Collective on what the OXA Machine is and the information it contains. The Sundaresh Experiment 13-R https://www.ishtar-collective.net/entries/the-sundaresh-experiment-13-r#maya-sundaresh Ishtar Collective research led to places unexpected, unexplored, and in some cases unsanctioned. Esi: Is that… radiolarian fluid?! Sundaresh: Close the bulkhead, Chioma. Esi: Where did you even— Sundaresh: The excesses from Shim's siphons were just being discarded. This is better. Esi: And you're using it as, what? A propellant? Sundaresh: A coolant. If the Vex decide to simulate things in physical space such that we can experience them natively, we must understand more than just their physiology. We are too focused on the abstract and the theoretical and the simulated, love. We are scientists, yes, but Humans also make tools. Esi: That meditation sim really had an effect on you. Sundaresh: Hush. Esi: A ship built with repurposed Ishtar construction materials, integrating Vex technology almost as an afterthought. Sundaresh: You disapprove. Esi: The last time I questioned an idea like this, it ended up saving us from simulation purgatory. I would be a fool to disapprove.Sundaresh: Then come here and let's celebrate. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Introduction to the Chemicals and Atomic Structures that make up the Universe in Destiny (What the Light and Darkness actually are) !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!PAY SPECIAL ATTENTION TO BOLDED ITALICS!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! (Thread Theme and Inspiration for this detective work) : ) https://youtu.be/oUen2-zLDG8 Part I: The OXA Machine - OXA (definition) - indicating that a chemical compound contains oxygen, used esp to denote that a heterocycliccompound is derived from a specified compound by replacement of a carbonatom with an oxygen atom https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/oxa (from above in greater detail) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterocyclic_compound Heterocyclic Compounds - A heterocyclic compound or ring structure is a cyclic compound that has atoms of at least two different elements as members of its ring(s).[1]Heterocyclic chemistry is the branch of organic chemistry dealing with the synthesis, properties, and applications of these heterocycles.[2] Examples of heterocyclic compounds include all of the nucleic acids, the majority of drugs,most biomass (cellulose and related materials), and many natural andsynthetic dyes**.** 59% of US FDA-approved drugs contain nitrogen heterocycles Although heterocyclic chemical compounds may be inorganic compounds or organic compounds, most contain at least one carbon. While atoms that are neither carbon nor hydrogen are normally referred to in organic chemistry as heteroatoms, this is usually in comparison to the all-carbon backbone. But this does not prevent a compound such as borazine (which has no carbon atoms) from being labelled "heterocyclic". IUPAC recommends the Hantzsch-Widman nomenclature for naming heterocyclic compounds. Heterocyclic compounds can be usefully classified based on their electronic structure.The saturated heterocycles behave like the acyclic derivatives. Thus, piperidine and tetrahydrofuran are conventional amines and ethers, with modified steric profiles. Therefore, the study of heterocyclic chemistry focuses especially on unsaturated derivatives, and the preponderance of work and applications involves unstrained 5- and 6-membered rings. Included are pyridine, thiophene, pyrrole, and furan. Another large class of heterocycles are fused to benzene rings, which for pyridine, thiophene, pyrrole, and furan are quinoline, benzothiophene, indole, and benzofuran, respectively. Fusion of two benzene rings gives rise to a third large family of compounds, respectively the acridine, dibenzothiophene, carbazole, and dibenzofuran. The unsaturated rings can be classified according to the participation of the heteroatom in the conjugated system, pi system. Heterocyclic Compounds Can Have up to 9 Atom Rings (I think this another clue with 9 entries in this lore book, plus the actual Nine. merely a clue that were on the right track) All of the items that Match places into the Y-Goblet in the entries of the Confessions Lore book are derivitives of a OXA-Heterocyclic Compound as explained in detail below History of Heterocyclic Chemistry The history of heterocyclic chemistry began in the 1800s, in step with the development of organic chemistry. Some noteworthy developments:[6] Piperidine https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piperidine this chemical in real life is used to make PCP or angel dust the illegal drug, but since it's part of the OXA machine's actual molecular mechinations, it inferrs the examination of the way Ghost mentions how insanely aggressive Psions are in Psionic Potential mission on Mars when talking about their behavior. Much like being on that drug. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1818: Brugnatelli isolatesalloxanfromuric acid - Alloxan https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloxan sometimes referred to as alloxan hydrate, refers to the organic compound with the formula OC(N(H)CO)2C(OH)2. It is classified as a derivative ofpyrimidine. The anhydrous derivative (OC(N(H)CO)2CO is also known as well as a dimeric derivative. These are some of the earliest known organic compounds. They also exhibit a variety of biological activities. - Pyrimidine https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrimidine In March 2015,NASA Amesscientists reported that, for the first time, complexDNAandRNAorganic compoundsoflife, includinguracil,cytosineandthymine, have been formed in the laboratory underouter spaceconditions, using starting chemicals, such as pyrimidine, found inmeteorites. Pyrimidine, likepolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs), the most carbon-rich chemical found in theuniverse, may have been formed inred giantsor ininterstellar dustand gas clouds. (Interstellar dust hmmm, very very interesting eh : ) ) (Book Confesssions: Entry III) https://www.ishtar-collective.net/entries/entry-iii#book-confessions I think he feels small. Most of the universe is nothing, and he is nothing to it. This scar in our galaxy was cut long before he was born. I drew the Y-goblet in the dirt of a garden today. I used my finger, not my mind, so that no one would feel it. My faith was exterminated long before my people met the Cabal, in a way so total and vicious that I do not think a people without psionics could understand the pain. My ancestors were the strongest secret-keepers in the universe. I know this because they survived long enough to give birth to me. I don't know how they did it, because every time I look another Psion in the face I see the Y-goblet, the holy cup into which our minds were poured. What if Calus knows I'm losing my faith in him? What if I'm the poison that makes him wilt? (The Strongest Secret Keepers were the prehistoric Psions, the link to Savathun's ploy from Truth to Power) (Truth to Power: Thank You) https://www.ishtar-collective.net/entries/thank-you#book-truth-to-power "With this tribute, I shall undertake a mighty work. A real humdinger of a scheme. I'm going to refinance my entire existence. I'm going to move from an existential economy based on the accumulation of violence to an existential economy based on the accumulation of secrets and the tribute of failing-to-understand-me. I shall name this tribute of failing-to-understand IMBARU, for it shall be as formless as the mist." Imbaru - means enchantment / Dul - a little town called Josefuv Dul in the Czech Republic Dul means loop Josefuv is czech for Josef which means may God increase God Loop Josefuv Dul aka Trostland https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef%C5%AFv_D%C5%AFl_(Jablonec_nad_Nisou_District)) http://josefuvdul.eu/wp-content/uploads/MG_5002-1024x683.jpg http://josefuvdul.eu/ History Beginning in the year 1690, Maximilian II Emanuel populated the area with German immigrants. In 1701, the city of Karlsberg was founded by the Desfours family, who were known for the estates of Groß Rohosetz and Morchenstern. The new village was known for producing glass and crystal products.[4]#cite_note-josefuvdul-4) Karlsberg was divided into Untermaxdorf, Karlsberg and Josefsthal in 1827. Fifty years later Untermaxdorf and Antoniwald were incorporated. The Munich Agreement permitted Nazi Germany's Adolf Hitler to annex the area in 1938 into what he called the Sudetenland. Shortly thereafter Karlsberg was dissolved becoming Obermaxdorf and Antoniwald. Josefsthal and Untermaxdorf formed a new community named Iserwald. Following World War II, in 1945, the town returned to Czechoslovakia and the German inhabitants were expelled under the terms of Beneš decrees. Church The Josefův Důl church was built between 1862 and 1865 in a neo-gothic style. Its construction was partially funded by a lottery and 4000 gold pieces were collected. The ceremonial laying of the foundation stone was held in September 1862. The church tower is 45 metres (148 ft) high, the interior fittings house three valuable altar paintings by Wilhelm Kandler. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef%C5%AFv_D%C5%AFl_(Jablonec_nad_Nisou_District)#/media/File:Kirche_Josefuv_Dul.jpg#/media/File:Kirche_Josefuv_Dul.jpg) Etymology: Joseph's valley,[1]#citenote-1) Joseph's Mine[[2]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef%C5%AFv_D%C5%AFl(Jablonec_nad_Nisou_District)#cite_note-2)Motto(s): The gateway to Jizera Mountains https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Josefuv_Dul_JN_CZ_CD_Class_810_in_1994.jpg Josefův Důl railway station https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef%C5%AFv_D%C5%AFl_dam Jusefuv Dul waterway dam https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef%C5%AFv_D%C5%AFl_dam#/media/File:Talsperre_Josefsthal_1.jpg hmmmm looks extremely familiar eh..... ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1832: Dobereiner produces furfural (a furan) by treating starch with sulfuric acid ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1834: Runge obtains pyrrole ("fiery oil") by dry distillation of bones Pyrrole https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrrole History Pyrrole was first detected by F. F. Runge in 1834, as a constituent of coal tar.[6] In 1857, it was isolated from the pyrolysate of bone. Its name comes from the Greek pyrrhos (πυρρός, “reddish, fiery”), from the reaction used to detect it—the red color that it imparts to wood when moistened with hydrochloric acid Reactions and reactivity Due to itsaromatic character, pyrrole is difficult tohydrogenate, does not easily react as a diene in Diels–Alder reactions, and does not undergo usual olefin reactions. Its reactivity is similar to that of benzene and aniline, in that it is easy to alkylate and acylate. Under acidic conditions, pyrrolespolymerizeeasily, and thus manyelectrophilicreagents that are used in benzene chemistry are not applicable to pyrroles. In contrast, substituted pyrroles (includingprotectedpyrroles) have been used in a broad range of transformations (Book Confessions: Entry III) https://www.ishtar-collective.net/entries/entry-iii#book-confessions By the mind of Match. Upon the Leviathan, resigned to its course. Today I fill the Y-goblet with powdered bone, so that my ancestors may dry their ink. My every thought and purpose for my Emperor, Calus, once sovereign. (Book Dust: The Bone) https://www.ishtar-collective.net/entries/the-bone#book-dust Ikora Rey makes it fly away. "You weren't after that bone. It was after you. Did you make a wish, Lavinia? Did you ask to know about the Nine?" She tries to explain that she didn't, that she only wanted to track the bone back to its source (Venus, hopefully), and to learn why the Nine needed the Ahamkara. "Why do you think the Nine needed Ahamkara?" Ikora asks, dangerously. "To make wishes," Lavinia pants. "Xûr didn't appear in the Tower until the end of the Great Ahamkara Hunt. Whatever they used to get from the Ahamkara..." She leaves it unsaid: maybe the Nine are now getting it from Guardians. Ikora rubs her brow. "I can't stop you. But if you keep looking, I can't protect you from the consequences." "Help me!" Lavinia begs. "There's something here! Something that connects everything, the Trials, and the Ahamkara, and the Guardians, and the Nine. There are things the Consensus knows about Ghaul's attack, things they haven't told us—" (Book Dust: The Gate) https://www.ishtar-collective.net/entries/the-gate#book-dust Lavinia swears and beats her suited fist against her helmet. She's trapped in Cocytus! The last time the Awoken trapped anyone here, those poor souls went utterly insane. The doomed crew of the Dead Orbit scout ship Sophia called this place A113, an innocent catalogue number; they had no idea that the gates aboard—once a Golden Age experiment—had been captured by the Hive deity Crota. Those gates consumed them all. Now Crota is gone, and Lavinia has gambled everything that the portals have fallen into other hands. Ahamkara make the unreal real—Calus's ship is surrounded by a halo of unreal dark matter, like a ring of probing hands, Guardians can manipulate reality itself—there is a pattern here, a story, and it leads to Cocytus, to what these gates might do. "Logs." She pages frantically through the observations left by the Awoken sentries once stationed here. Cocytus was abandoned when the Red Legion attacked, all its defenses scavenged to reinforce Vesta. "What came out of the gate? What did you see?" //EVENT 1 TIME 00:00:00 Portal 3 emitted a hydrogen nucleus. Over 72 hours, the emissions developed from diatomic hydrogen to nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, water, and simple organic molecules. At the 80-hour mark, a pellet of thick black hydrocarbon tar. Until 82:34:15, the gate emitted tar containing complex monomers and polymers— "Come on!" Lavinia barks, paging ahead. "Come on, damn you, give me something real! Give me the Nine!" //EVENT 1 TIME 524:03:11 Portal 3 emitted a living organism. Death was immediate. Autopsy team reports a spherical body, radius one point one meters, surfaced in hydrocarbon tar. Deep, evenly spaced "throats" converged on a central cavity perhaps intended to serve as lung and stomach. The body consists of an undifferentiated tissue of primitive cells. A basic spasm reflex forces air down the throats. Without enzymes to catalyze metabolism, the organism could not survive. Cell death occurred instantaneously throughout the mass. There were no provisions for self-repair or reproduction. Lavinia reads this again, horrified and fascinated. Something on the far side of the gate is learning to assemble atoms, molecules, even haphazard life... something from a world of darkness and dust, probing its way into our structured existence, trying to cobble together a message, an emissary, a body... The Nine are on the far side of this gate. She's sure of it. She's found them. A113 isn't just a Pixar meme Nihonium https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihonium Nihonium is a syntheticchemical element with the symbol) Nh and atomic number113. It is extremely radioactive; its most stable known isotope, nihonium-286, has ahalf-lifeof about 10 seconds. In the periodic table, nihonium is atransactinide element in the p-block. It is a member of period 7 and group 13 (boron group). Nihonium was first reported to have been created in 2003 by a Russian–American collaboration at theJoint Institute for Nuclear Research(JINR) inDubna, Russia, and in 2004 by a team of Japanese scientists at Riken in Wakō, Japan. The confirmation of their claims in the ensuing years involved independent teams of scientists working in the United States, Germany, Sweden, and China, as well as the original claimants in Russia and Japan. In 2015, the IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party recognised the element and assigned the priority of the discovery and naming rights for the element to Riken, as it judged that they had demonstrated that they had observed element 113 before the JINR team did so. The Riken team suggested the name nihoniumin 2016, which was approved in the same year. The name comes from the common Japanese name for Japan (日本 nihon). Very little is known about nihonium, as it has only been made in very small amounts that decay away within seconds. The anomalously long lives of some superheavy nuclides, including some nihonium isotopes, are explained by the "island of stability" theory.Experiments support the theory, with the half-lives of the confirmed nihonium isotopes increasing from milliseconds to seconds asneutronsare added and the island is approached. Nihonium has been calculated to have similar properties to its homologues boron, aluminium, gallium, indium, and thallium. All but boron are post-transition metals, and nihonium is expected to be a post-transition metal as well. It should also show several major differences from them; for example, nihonium should be more stable in the +1 oxidation state than the +3 state, like thallium, but in the +1 state nihonium should behave more likesilverandastatine than thallium. Preliminary experiments in 2017 showed that elemental nihonium is not veryvolatile); its chemistry remains largely unexplored. The Aphelion are made of Nihonium when they attacked the Awoken on Bamberga (Book The Dreaming City: Bamberga) https://www.ishtar-collective.net/entries/bamberga#aphelion SUMMARY OF SBU APHELION INCIDENTS FOLLOWS BELOW. *** EVENT 2PAL-A :: OTDR-4-REL *** INFORMATION RECEIVED APR 09-18T02:29:45+00:00 FROM PALADIN NOLG, CONSIDERED SOBER, DEPENDABLE, NOT OF FANTASY. NOLG REPORTED "A GLOWING CREATURE" ON EXT OF HIS SHIP "RETRIBUTION" MOMENTS BEFORE ROUTINE NLS JUMP. "RETRIBUTION" FDR SHOWED RAD SPIKE (5 SIGMA) ON TEPC, CPDS, AND RAM. CPD SHOWED NO EFFECT. ON RECOMMENDATION OF K WADJ, NOLG WAS QUARANTINED UNDER TECHEUN SUPERVISION FOR 1 MONTH. "RETRIBUTION" DECOMMISSIONED, SET ADRIFT BEYOND REEF. A SAR FLEET FOUND THAT THE AMESTRIS WAS UNSAFE TO BOARD DUE TO RADIOACTIVE SURFACE CONTAMINATION. SAR DEPLOYED MULTIPLE CROW DRONES FOR INTERIOR SURVEY. NO EVIDENCE OF HULL BREACH WAS FOUND. NO EVIDENCE OF MALTECH DETONATION WAS FOUND. NO EVIDENCE OF HOSTILE ALIEN INTERFERENCE WAS FOUND. NO EVIDENCE OF INTERNAL SABOTAGE WAS FOUND. NO SURVIVORS WERE FOUND. AMESTRIS ABANDONED, SET ADRIFT BEYOND REEF. Important Cutscenes Below to connect this stuff: https://youtu.be/5HmV_mKzWmo https://youtu.be/2ehZORTn3MM (Sjur Eido, the only Awoken to survive an attack from The Aphelion) The Nine saved Sjur Eido by absorbing all the surrounding Helium-4 around her, since this is what the actual "Darkness" is has she explored Anthenaeum World X Aphelion (definition) - (astronomy) The point in the ellipticalorbit of a planet, comet, etc., where it is farthest from the Sun. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aphelion
For when something is the opposite, but the same. Like being symmetry but for a question.
The word I want to use in my report is "conjugate", but according to the definitions I found conjugate only makes sense when referring to chemistry or mathematics, whilst I am writing a history report. I have two questions that I want to compare using the word conjugate, they are the same questions, except one uses the word "positive" whereas the other uses the word "negative". Therefore it makes sense to me, from a mathematical side, that the word conjugate could be used. To me, a conjugate pair is like a puzzle with only two pieces which fit perfectly together, or two identical triangles put together which make a square. Is there another word that would fit this meaning?
Tips for Future IB Students (or sacrifices to the IB God)
WARNING: LONG POST. USE COMMAND/CONTROL + F TO YOUR ADVANTAGE. SL: English A L&L, Spanish Ab HL: Psych, Math, Phys, Chem EE in Psychology ~~~ Hi everyone. First of all I'd like to thank this community for keeping me sane through my two years of IB. I wouldn't have been able to recover from my 5 mental breakdowns during exams without you guys and your memes. So as a thank you, I'll write some tips for some subjects that I did for the future generation of IB sacrifices... As a young and innocent IB Y1 student, I was looking everywhere for posts that would help me understand what the heck was necessary for me to do and... I couldn't find any. So here goes. ~~~ English A Lang Lit SL To be completely honest, I hated this class with a passion. The pros in this class are such that 50\% of your grade is decided before you walk into that exam. I'll talk about this in a moment. The cons? Well. The cons in this class is literally the same as the pros. You probably know what I'm trying to get at. Your Oral work and WT are very very very important before you walk into that exam. They make up that 50% that I was talking about. You can either walk into that exam knowing that you have strong orals and WT, which will give you extra confidence during exams (and who doesn't want extra confidence?). On the flip side, you can walk into the exam knowing that you don't have strong orals or WT. Take your pick. For my IOC (half of the oral), I panicked halfway through. There's literally 10 seconds of silence in my recording. So I guess what I'd tell you all who are scared of your IOC or that you panicked during your IOC is to not worry. As long as you manage to tear the text apart with some high level vocab and overthinking, you're good. There's no real "right answer" in english. So express your opinion. Similar to the P2, make sure you READ THE BOOKS (I did Othello and The Things They Carried). For the IOC, know the specific excerpts (your teacher may give them to you) by annotating and make sure you connect them to the rest of the book (bonus points!!). For my WT, I nearly gave up on that. Don't. I swear. After walking out of my English P1 in the end, I was going to burst into tears because all I analyzed was the first half of the passage. However, knowing that I put out a strong WT, I settled a little. Your teacher will make you do multiple WT (I think I did 3 in total) despite only submitting one in the end, although I'm some schools your teacher may choose not to (I don't think they are supposed to but welp). Do them all as best as you can. It'll give you the freedom of choice in the end on which to brush up and make better. You have a lot of freedom for the WT (like the EE) so do something that you are passionate about. It'll be easier to work with. During exams, I flopped the P1 (or at least I felt I did). So I went home and worked my ass off to study for English P2. Unlike P1, where you can get literally anything, you can prepare for P2. For my P1, my teacher already gave me a lot of practice on how to write essays so I kinda knew how to analyze and identify textual features and stuff, but dumb old me wanted to organize my essay differently for the first time during my exam. DO NOT TRY SOMETHING NEW DURING EXAMS. I flopped. But for P2, I did pretty well on it. I'm not the kind of student who needs to make notes for every single thing. So I didn't make notes for plot and all that. However, I did pay attention in class and READ THE BOOKS. Reading the books really helped me to understand character and plot development, which I wrote about in my final P2 essay for sure. Instead, I made notes for specific quotes and examples from the text that I wanted to use in my essay. Aha! Here's the part where you need to use that brain to decide which quotes to pick. The quotes that you pick will be different from others just because you may have your own way of writing or opinion of the texts in comparison to others. Make sure you pick your own quotes that you analyze the shit out of PRIOR to the exam. For me, I had quotes connected to characters and symbols and themes and plot. I also added stylistic feature analysis. So if there was a simile in a quote that had characters/symbols/etc. BING to the O. This made it so. much. easier. during the exams when I had to analyze the quotes. Also, litcharts/sparknotes/shmoop are literally your best friends. I abused them so much when I studied my two books (A Doll's House and A Streetcar Named Desire). Similar to the IOC preparations, make sure you can connect these quotes to other events in the book. You don't need quotes for the other events but just know what one event leads to, how it leads to the other event and why. I think I had about 30 quotes altogether for both books. You don't need that many. But seeing as my P1 went badly, I wanted to be very prepared for my P2. Exam Prep: Annotate past papers for both P1 and P2 (maybe write a timed essay or two) and make outlines. For P1 annotate the text and for P2 annotate the question. ~~~ Spanish Ab Initio SL Review the vocab to prepare for P1. That's about all there is to it. Also make sure you know some basic conjugations for your P2. Like English A Lang Lit SL, 50\% of your grade will be in before your exam. What you want that to mean for you would depend on your own effort. So you may or may not know. The Group 2 language grade boundaries are screwed up because of native or near-native speakers taking the same exams. Don't believe me? Take the English Ab Initio paper and have a look. Then compare that to the English B papers. Anyway, you basically need to achieve a near-native interpretation level yourself if you want to get good grades in this class. It's pure hard work. I don't want to say too much about this subject as none of my peers and I did stellar in this class. It was the only class of mine where my actual was lower than my predicted. Exam Prep: Do past papers for P1 and try to begin to get a hang of the kinds of questions IB asks (like T/F questions etc). Make sure you have outlines for P2 text types in order to prevent the loss of easy marks. ~~~ Psychology HL Notes. Notes. Notes. Personally, the reason why I feel like I survived this class was because I made the most in depth notes ever (a feat I wish I did in my other classes tbh...). I took 4 textbooks and made notes using all of them, condensed into one document. This really helped me for my mocks, exams, and overall understanding of the subject. What I did, contrary to popular opinion, was to learn the LAQ for all the levels of analysis in the core. This was because I like the freedom of choice and, plus, LAQ topics can be tested in SAQ anyway. But that's what worked for me. Make sure you know the command term. IB Prepared for Psychology was my book of God. It really helped me learn what each command term wants in the essay. So maybe take a look for that. It'll help. Fundamentally, for the new syllabus even, these should still stay the same. You want to be able to understand the subject by making notes. The only difference between the new syllabus and my syllabus (final exams 2018) is the way you'll organize your notes and the way the exam format may be minutely. A lot of my friends made complete outlines for learning outcomes that were given (which I don't think should be a problem due to IB removing testing according to the learning outcomes). This was probably one of the reasons why the examiner reports always involved insufficient completion of following the demands of the command term just because the learning outcomes that are given do not necessarily have the same essay structure needed to get those 6/7 grades in your exam due to the different command term. I'd suggest to understand the command term, the content, and evaluation in order to BS your way into structuring an appropriate well-scoring essay for your P1 and P2. I never made one essay outline ever in my notes to prepare for IB Psychology examinations. Most teachers probably won't give a shit about P3. But make sure you know the definitions for P3. It'll get you some easy points. Don't forget to know the command term for this paper too. Describing inductive content analysis and explaining it are two completely different things. Command term understanding takes a lot of practice, so make sure you take your teacher's advice to heart and try to make your writing better each time. A 7 essay from one student won't look the same as another 7 essay, but both will check the boxes for a 7. So practice, practice, and practice. The IA is simple to secure high marks. I don't know if they will change it in the new syllabus yet, but as of my syllabus, you need to make sure you follow the rubric very closely. If you tick all the boxes, you'll be able to get a 7. Exam Prep: Notes! For the new syllabus P1 and P2, maybe take a look at the specimen/past papers for the new syllabus and ensure that you understand how your exam works. For P3, annotate past paper excerpts and get a feel for what IB usually asks (e.g. inductive content analysis). ~~~ Mathematics HL Practice is so key. Your teacher may or may not assign practice questions to you. Do them all the time. It'll be tempting to look at questionbank and do all those questions, but the issue with that is that when you see those exact same questions on your exam in school, you will already know how to do the question and get it right. So leave questionbank and past papers to your second year so you can at least get a feel for where you may truly stand in your first year. However, the reality is that since you are faced with questions that you have never encountered before in the final IB examinations. This could lead you to getting a predicted grade higher than your actual. So maybe you're wondering what you can practice with. Make sure your fundamentals are sound and you understand what you need to know. The syllabus can suffice for this. But eventually you'll do past papers and you'll begin to get a feel for what you need to know and what topics commonly go together. I did the calculus option for P3. It's quite difficult but that's where the fundamentals come into play. Once you're able to identify what fundamentals are needed in a question, you're ready to solve. There's a lot of youtube videos related to the calculus option. You just have to find them. They're generally the equivalent of college calculus year 1 and year 2 courses I think. Can't really remember. For your maths IA... how do I put it... It's better to do something that you understand and lose a mark or two in criterion E (use of mathematics) rather than do something you don't understand and lose a mark all across the board in communication, reflection, etc. Personally, I did something very simple that required barely any complicated thinking but I only lost a mark in criterion E and ended up with a 7 for my math IA. Also, knowing your formula booklet will help you a TON. Losing 3 seconds every time you look for a formula during an exam is a nono. Don't be that kid. Know where the equations are. Trust me. It'll give you the chance for an extra few marks. Exam Prep: Past papers. Past papers. Past papers. Know your calculator's capabilities for P2 and P3. It can make or break a grade boundary. Know your formula booklet in and out. ~~~ Physics HL Your data booklet is your best friend. This is in a similar way to what I wrote about the formula booklet for math but different. The IB Physics data booklet is an asshole. Literally. They try to trip you up by using different notations here and there. I fell into that trap in my P3 exam. So make sure you know the tricks of the data booklet because it can save your grades during an exam. Understanding the science behind obtaining certain values in calculations is very important. For this class, the IB Oxford study guide is the book of God. It goes over so many things that are necessary and it's hassle-free compared to the textbook. Before my exams, I would take this book and read through the entire thing. I think that's what saved my ass during my exams. Personally, my IA went through some dumb problems and I had to rewrite it so I didn't do very well on it in the end. I won't comment much about the IA but just work hard on it. I think that for me personally in order to prepare for my exams I did like one or two past papers until I realized that the questions didn't help me much personally as there were so many different scenarios that the IB could test you on. So my advice would be to do some recent past papers to get a feel of the progression of the exam. On P2 for instance, the first question is generally about mechanics followed by a big question on electricity or whatever and there's usually a big question on modern physics etc. The goal of the two years in IB physics is to get a feel for what topics go together well. The goal of exam study and doing past papers near the end of the course in preparation is to get a feel for the big topics. As for P1, just know that the IB will be tricky so try your best to identify some tricks that they'll attempt and common mistakes that students to. For P3, I did astrophysics. Please do not forget Section A. Review your practicals. Astrophysics wasn't too bad. You just need to memorize some stuff so... yeah. There's not a lot of difficult math in it either so just do some practice problems and understand what's going on. You're basically gonna have to memorize the IB Oxford study guide to regurgitate onto the exam page for this option. Note: I've heard good things about the Cambridge Physics textbook, so give that a try. I didn't use it but apparently it's pretty good. Exam Prep: Past papers and read through a source of notes (either your own or someone else's or the study guide, which I recommend) to make sure you refresh your brain on the fundamentals as almost everything that is tested on the exam is related to fundamental physics. (Literally almost everything can be related to F=ma lol) ~~~ Chemistry HL Know the periodic trends. This is the trippiest topic (for most of my friends and I know I get tripped up a lot by this as well). When you get your P1, there will be a periodic table behind the first page. DON'T RIP IT OUT I ALMOST GOT INTO DEEP SHIT, but grab your pen and draw in the trends. It'll make the P1 questions faster. Similarly to physics, make sure you know what common mistakes you have on your own (Richard Thornley has videos about this I think... not too sure cuz I didn't watch them but I remember seeing them). Just like physics, everything that you learned in IB sciences is built off pre-IB sciences, which are very simple and fundamental. So if you ever get stuck on a concept, think back to pre-IB and try to build from that. Believe me, it makes some concepts a lot easier in chemistry HL as some of these concepts can be so triggering and difficult to understand. My IA has a funny story behind it... I nearly made my whole classroom evacuate. But that's not what I'm here to talk about. What I learned after my physics IA (which I didn't work too hard on tbh, which may explain why I made the dumb mistake and had to rewrite it and got a crappy grade) was that you really should work hard on your IA cuz they can literally save your ass when you walk out of that exam room thinking that you didn't know half the exam. I worked so hard on my chemistry IA and restarted collecting data 3 times (it took me 3 days and a lot of money) until I got the perfect data. I then took a long time to research some concepts that were quite difficult but tried to understand them nonetheless. A few weeks after I submitted my IA, I was told that my IA would be an exemplar for future years. It's one of my proudest pieces of work. Work hard on your IA and make it something you can be proud of. There's nothing much else to say for chemistry except for the way to prepare for papers is relatively similar to physics. Do a few past papers in order to get a feel for what the IB likes and mixes. I did medicinal chemistry for P3 and it's quite similar to what I said for astrophysics. There's a lot of memorization so get your IB oxford study guide and give it a hard read through. Understand what's going on and it should suffice. (Also don't forget Section A practicals as well!) Note: If you want an in-depth textbook for chemistry, Pearson does the trick. Exam Prep: Past papers and read through a source of notes (either your own or someone else's or the study guide, which I recommend) to ensure you know the concepts well. ~~~ ToK First thing. If you are writing your essay and have literally no idea what is going on. You're probably doing it right. But how do I know that this is right? What is right? What is wrong? How do we separate right from wrong? Is it moral to do so? Yup. Glad I'm done with that shit. Okay in all seriousness though, make sure to plan your essay out and BRAINSTORM. You'll be able to think of some ToK level idea after brainstorming for a while to weave into your essay. Second thing. Pick a knowledge question that you are passionate about for your presentation. Just like what I've said before about being able to pick your topics in other subjects for your work. If you like the topic, you'll work harder. So do that. The essay and the presentation are quite similar in the way you are supposed to develop your ideas and points. Keep that in mind. ~~~ EE Personally, my EE was on psychology just because I couldn't be bothered to stay in school over the summer and do experiments for science EEs. Overall, the entire process for me (research and outlining and writing) took 2 weeks over the summer. Of course, I didn't procrastinate much during the day (except for the occasional gaming break). What I'm trying to say is that your EE doesn't actually take long and you can enjoy your summer. I'm not shitting you. If you need a break, take it. But try to capitalize on those moments when you are productive because I had a crappy writers block at 3000 words where I didn't know what else to write about, so I'm quite glad that I completed it until that point quite early because I had the spare time to take a break. Make sure that you outline your entire EE before you write. Yes, you can change your outline as you write. But it's much better to be able to visualize and plan your EE before you get started. Also, finish your EE before the end of the summer. Maybe leave a week or so for you to relax before Y2 starts. It helped me a lot. Make sure that the EE that you have before you give yourself the "done with EE" status over the summer is the third or fourth draft of your EE with your own proofreading and editing. Take a day off in between and look at it with fresh eyes. I'd suggest doing the second draft after a day of rest and the third draft after a week or so. It'll help you see where you make mistakes and stuff. By doing this and making your own EE the best it can be before Y2 starts can really prevent you from burning out early in Y2. Imagine having to do all your IAs and EE in the first semester of Y2. Prevent that from happening cuz it sucks. ~~~ I hope that this post will help others on this reddit as posts from others have helped me during my two years. If there are any questions that you have, feel free to PM or comment down below. Good luck to all future IB takers!!
Conjugation occurs in and between many species of bacteria, including Gram-negative as well as Gram-positive bacteria, and even occurs between bacteria and plants. Broad-host-range conjugative plasmids have been used in molecular biology to introduce recombinant genes into bacterial species that are refractory to routine transformation or transduction methods. Conjugation occurs when p orbital on three or more adjacent atoms can overlap Conjugation tends to stabilize molecules. Allylic carbocations are a common conjugated system. The positive charge of a carbocation is contained in a P orbital of a sp 2 hybridized carbon. This allows for overlap with double bonds. The positive charge is more stable because it is spread over 2 carbons. Conjugate Acid Definition. Conjugate acids and bases are Bronsted-Lowry acid and base pairs, determined by which species gains or loses a proton. When a base dissolves in water, the species that gains a hydrogen (proton) is the base's conjugate acid. Acid + Base → Conjugate Base + Conjugate Acid. Conjugation reactions (also known as phase II reactions) are of critical significance in the metabolism of endogenous compounds, as witnessed by the impressive battery of enzymes that have evolved to catalyze them. Conjugation is also of great importance in the biotransformation of xenobiotics, involving parent compounds or metabolites thereof [2,15,20,25]. In the formalism that separates bonds into σ and π types, hyperconjugation is the interaction of σ-bonds (e.g. C-H, C-C, etc.) with a π network. Illustrated Glossary of Organic Chemistry Conjugation: Special stability associated with three or more adjacent, parallel, overlapping p orbitals, resulting in increased electron delocalization and longer electron wavelengths. Not limited to pi - sigma - pi bond arrangements. ‘After conjugation, chromosomes in the transcriptionally active macronucleus develop by fragmentation, elimination, and amplification of germ line chromosomes.’ ‘Therefore, it is only following new MAC development late in conjugation that the previously silent MIC genomes from the mated cells are brought into expression.’ The term conjugation has different meanings in chemistry; conjugation may refer to the joining of two compounds to form a single compound or it can be the overlap of p-orbitals across a σ bond (sigma bond). Since we are comparing conjugation with hyperconjugation, i.e., interaction of σ-bonds with a π network, in this article, we’ll consider the second definition of conjugation. Thus, the ... Conjugation. The word "conjugation" is derived from a Latin word that means "to link together". In organic chemistry terms, it is used to describe the situation that occurs when π systems (e.g. double bonds) are "linked together". An "isolated" π (pi) system exists only between a single pair of adjacent atoms (e.g. C=C) (1) A conjugate refers to a compound formed by the joining of two or more chemical compounds. (2) In the Bronsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases, the term conjugate refers to an acid and base that differ from each other by a proton. When an acid and base react, the acid forms its conjugate base while the base forms it conjugate acid:
More substituted carbocations tend to be more stable. Here, Professor Davis explains the role of hyperconjugation in the process of stabilizing this critica... Hello students in this video tutorial I have tried to explain about conjugation that is a sexual reproduction method in Paramecium caudatum in detail. Its significance.I have tired to explain it ... #Resonance #Conjugation Chemistry For AIIMS NEET JEE MAINS, Chemistry For 11th Class,12th Class, Chemistry For CBSE Board exam Tricks For Inductive Effect -I... Hello Guys, Hyperconjugation is one of the most important topic for IIT-Jee Mains, Advance, AIIMS, NEET & BITSAT. The delocalization of σ-electrons or lone p... This organic chemistry video tutorial provides a basic introduction into carbocation stability. It discusses hyperconjugation and the inductive effect of el... Kelly Greene Alice Chan Neelofer Karimyar. For the Love of Physics - Walter Lewin - May 16, 2011 - Duration: 1:01:26. Lectures by Walter Lewin. This chemistry video tutorial explains the concept of acids and bases using the arrhenius definition, bronsted - lowry and lewis acid base definition. It al... explanation of conjugated systems and example problems For PDF Notes and best Assignments visit @ http://physicswallahalakhpandey.com/Live Classes, Video Lectures, Test Series, Lecturewise notes, topicwise DPP, ...
